N. S. Safaev, N. A. Mirashirova, N. G. Odilova, Sh. D. Turabekova, Sh. K. Karimova



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major
depressive disorder, mania,
and 
bipolar disorder.
mood-congruent memory the tendency to 
recall experiences that are consistent with one’s 
current good or bad mood.
380


motivation a need or desire that energizes
and directs behavior.
motor cortex an area at the rear of the
frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
motor neurons neurons that carry outgoing
information from the brain and spinal cord to
the muscles and glands.
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) a 
technique that uses magnetic fields and radio 
waves to produce computer-generated images 
of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy, 
mutation a random error in gene replication 
that leads to a change.
N
narcolepsy a sleep disorder characterized by 
uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may 
lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune 
times.
natural selection the principle that, among 
the range of inherited trait variations, those that 
lead to increased reproduction and survival will 
most likely be passed on to succeeding generations, 
naturalistic observation observing and 
recording behavior in naturally occurring situations 
without trying to manipulate and control 
the situation.
nature-nurture issue the longstanding 
controversy over the relative contributions that 
genes and experience make to the development 
of psychological traits and behaviors.
Today’s science sees traits and behaviors arising 
from the interaction of nature and nurture, 
near-death experience an altered state of 
consciousness reported after a close brush with 
death (such as through cardiac arrest); often 
similar to drug-induced hallucinations, 
negative reinforcement increasing behaviors 
by stopping or reducing negative stimuli. A 
negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when
381


removed
after a response, strengthens the 
response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not 
punishment.)
nerves bundled axons that form neural 
“cables” connecting the central nervous system 
with muscles, glands, and sense organs, 
nervous system the body’s speedy, electrochemical 
communication network, consisting of 
all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central 
nervous systems.
neurogenesis the formation of new neurons, 
neuron a nerve cell; the basic building block 
of the nervous system, 
neurotransmitters chemical messengers 
that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons.
When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters 
travel across the synapse and bind 
to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby 
influencing whether that neuron will generate 
a neural impulse.
neutral stimulus (NS) in classical conditioning, 
a stimulus that elicits no response 
before conditioning.
night terrors a sleep disorder characterized by 
high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; 
unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during 
Stage sleep, within two or three hours of falling 
asleep, and are seldom remembered, 
norm an understood rule for accepted and 
expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” 
behavior.
normal curve 
(normal distribution)
a symmetrical, 
bell-shaped curve that describes the 
distribution of many types of data; most scores 
fall near the mean ( percent fall within one 
standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer 
near the extremes. 
, A- 
normal curve the symmetrical bell-shaped 
curve that describes the distribution of many
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physical and psychological attributes. Most 
scores fall near the average, and fewer and 
fewer scores lie near the extremes, 
normative social influence influence resulting 
from a person’s desire to gain approval or 
avoid disapproval.
О
object permanence the awareness that 
things continue to exist even when not perceived, 
observational learning learning by observing 
others.
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) an 
anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted 
repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions 
(compulsions).
occipital [ahk-SIP-uh-tuhl] lobes portion of 
the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the 
head; includes areas that receive information 
from the visual fields.
Oedipus [ED-uh-puss] complex according 
to Freud, a boy’s sexual desires toward his 
mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for 
the rival father.
one-word stage the stage in speech development, 
from about age to , during which a 
child speaks mostly in single words, 
operant behavior behavior that operates on 
the environment, producing consequences, 
operant chamber in operant conditioning 
research, a chamber (also known as a 
Skinner
box)
containing a bar or key that an animal can 
manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; 
attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar 
pressing or key pecking, 
operant conditioning a type of learning in 
which behavior is strengthened if followed by a 
reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher, 
operational definition a statement of the 
procedures (operations) used to define research
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variables. For example, 
human intelligence
may 
be operationally defined as “what an intelligence 
test measures.”
opiates 
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine 
and heroin; they depress neural activity, 
temporarily lessening pain and anxiety, 
opponent-process theory 
the theory that 
opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellowblue, 
white-black) enable color vision. For 
example, some cells are stimulated by green 
and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by 
red and inhibited by green, 
optic nerve 
the nerve that carries neural 
impulses from the eye to the brain, 
organizational psychology 
a subfield of I/O 
psychology that examines organizational influences 
on worker satisfaction and productivity 
and facilitates organizational change. B- 
other-race effect 
the tendency to recall 
faces of one’s own race more accurately than 
faces of other races. Also called the 
cross-race
effect
and the 
own-race bias.
outgroup 
“Them”—those perceived as different 
or apart from our ingroup, 
overconfidence 
the tendency to be more 
confident titan correct—to overestimate the 
accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.
P
panic disorder 
an anxiety disorder marked 
by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of 
intense dread in which a person experiences 
terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, 
or other frightening sensations, 
parallel processing 
the processing of many 
aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain’s 
natural mode of information processing for 
many functions, including vision. Contrasts 
with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most 
computers and of conscious problem solving.
384


parapsychology the study of paranormal 
phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis, 
parasympathetic nervous system the division 
of the autonomic nervous system that 
calms the body, conserving its energy
parietal [puh-RYE-uh-tuhl] lobes portion of 
the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head 
and toward the rear; receives sensory input for 
touch and body position.
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