HOW THE BRETTON WOODS SYSTEM WORKED
Under the Bretton Woods sys-
tem, exchange rates were supposed to change only when a country was experi-
encing a
fundamental disequilibrium
that is, large persistent deficits or
surpluses in its balance of payments. To maintain fixed exchange rates when coun-
tries had balance-of-payments deficits and were losing international reserves, the
IMF would loan deficit countries international reserves contributed by other mem-
bers. As a result of its power to dictate loan terms to borrowing countries, the IMF
could encourage deficit countries to pursue contractionary monetary policies that
would strengthen their currency or eliminate their balance-of-payments deficits. If
the IMF loans were not sufficient to prevent depreciation of a currency, the coun-
try was allowed to devalue its currency by setting a new, lower exchange rate.
A notable weakness of the Bretton Woods system was that although deficit
countries losing international reserves could be pressured into devaluing their cur-
rencies or pursuing contractionary policies, the IMF had no way to force surplus
countries to revise their exchange rates upward or pursue more expansionary poli-
cies. Particularly troublesome in this regard was the fact that the reserve currency
country, the United States, could not devalue its currency under the Bretton Woods
system even if the U.S. dollar was overvalued. When the United States attempted
to reduce domestic unemployment in the 1960s by pursuing an inflationary mon-
etary policy, a fundamental disequilibrium of an overvalued dollar developed.
Because surplus countries were not willing to revise their exchange rates upward,
adjustment in the Bretton Woods system did not take place, and the system
collapsed in 1971. Attempts to patch up the Bretton Woods system with the
Smithsonian Agreement in December 1971 proved unsuccessful, and by 1973, the
United States and its trading partners had agreed to allow exchange rates to float.
C H A P T E R 2 0
The International Financial System
529
The pegging of the yuan to the U.S. dollar has created several problems for
Chinese authorities. First, the Chinese now own a lot of U.S. assets, particularly U.S.
Treasury securities, which have very low returns. Second, the undervaluation of the
yuan has meant that Chinese goods are so cheap abroad that many countries have
threatened to erect trade barriers against these goods if the Chinese government
does not allow an upward revaluation of the yuan. Third, as we learned earlier in
the chapter, the Chinese purchase of U.S. dollar assets has resulted in a substantial
increase in the Chinese monetary base and money supply, which has the potential
to produce high inflation in the future. Because the Chinese authorities have
created substantial roadblocks to capital mobility, they have been able to sterilize
most of their exchange rate interventions while maintaining the exchange rate peg.
Nevertheless, they still worry about inflationary pressures. In July 2005, China
finally made its peg somewhat more flexible by letting the value of the yuan rise
2.1% and subsequently allowed it to appreciate at a gradual pace. The central bank
also indicated that it would no longer fix the yuan to the U.S. dollar, but would
instead maintain its value relative to a basket of currencies.
Why did the Chinese authorities maintain this exchange rate peg for so long
despite the problems? One answer is that they wanted to keep their export sector
humming by keeping the prices of their export goods low. A second answer might
be that they wanted to accumulate a large amount of international reserves as a war
chest that could be sold to buy yuan in the event of a speculative attack against the
yuan at some future date. Given the pressure on the Chinese government to further
revalue its currency from government officials in the United States and Europe, there
are likely to be further adjustments in China s exchange rate policy in the future.
530
PA R T V I
International Finance and Monetary Policy
Although most exchange rates are currently allowed to change daily in response
to market forces, central banks have not been willing to give up their option of
intervening in the foreign exchange market. Preventing large changes in
exchange rates makes it easier for firms and individuals purchasing or selling
goods abroad to plan into the future. Furthermore, countries with surpluses in
their balance of payments frequently do not want to see their currencies appre-
ciate because it makes their goods more expensive abroad and foreign goods
cheaper in their country. Because an appreciation might hurt sales for domestic
businesses and increase unemployment, surplus countries have often sold their
currency in the foreign exchange market and acquired international reserves.
Countries with balance-of-payments deficits do not want to see their currency
lose value because it makes foreign goods more expensive for domestic consumers
and can stimulate inflation. To keep the value of the domestic currency high, deficit
countries have often bought their own currency exchange in the foreign exchange
market and given up international reserves.
The current international financial system is a hybrid of a fixed and a flexible
exchange rate system. Rates fluctuate in response to market forces but are not
determined solely by them. Furthermore, many countries continue to keep the
value of their currency fixed against other currencies, as was the case in the
European Monetary System (to be described shortly).
Another important feature of the current system is the continuing de-emphasis
of gold in international financial transactions. Not only has the United States sus-
pended convertibility of dollars into gold for foreign central banks, but also since
1970 the IMF has been issuing a paper substitute for gold, called
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