Particularly controversial in the wake of the subprime financial crisis is the
move to
mark-to-market accounting
(also called
fair-value accounting
), in
which assets are valued on the balance sheet at what they could sell for in the mar-
ket (see the FYI box, Mark-to-Market Accounting and Financial Stability).
The existence of asymmetric information also suggests that consumers may not
have enough information to protect themselves fully. Consumer protection regu-
lation has taken several forms. First is truth in lending, which requires all lenders,
not just banks, to provide information to consumers about the cost of borrowing
including a standardized interest rate (called the
annual percentage rate, or APR
)
and the total finance charges on the loan. Legislation also requires creditors, espe-
cially credit card issuers, to provide information on the method of assessing
finance charges and requires that billing complaints be handled quickly.
The subprime mortgage crisis in the United States and Canada s short experi-
ment with subprime lending have illustrated the need for greater consumer pro-
tection because so many borrowers ended up taking out loans that they could not
understand and which were well beyond their means to repay. The result was mil-
lions of foreclosures, with many households losing their homes. Because weak
consumer protection regulation played a prominent role in this crisis, there have
been increasing demands to beef up this regulation, not only in the United States
but in other countries as well, as is discussed in the FYI box, The Subprime
Mortgage Crisis and Consumer Protection Regulation.
Increased competition can also increase moral hazard incentives for financial insti-
tutions to take on more risk. Declining profitability as a result of increased com-
petition could tip the incentives of financial institutions toward assuming greater
risk in an effort to maintain former profit levels. Thus governments in many coun-
tries have instituted regulations to protect financial institutions from competition.
These regulations have taken different forms in the past, one being preventing
nonbank institutions from competing with banks by engaging in banking business.
Although restricting competition propped up the health of banks, restrictions on
competition also had serious disadvantages: they led to higher charges to consumers
and decreased the efficiency of financial institutions, which did not have to compete
as vigorously. Thus, although the existence of asymmetric information provided a
rationale for anticompetitive regulations, it did not mean that they would be benefi-
cial. Indeed, in recent years, the impulse of governments in industrialized countries
to restrict competition has been waning.
Asymmetric information analysis explains what types of financial regulations are
needed to reduce moral hazard and adverse selection problems in the financial
system. However, understanding the theory behind regulation does not mean that
regulation and supervision of the financial system are easy in practice. Getting reg-
ulators and supervisors to do their job properly is difficult for several reasons. First,
financial institutions have strong incentives to avoid existing regulations by
exploiting loopholes. Thus, regulation applies to a moving target: Regulators are
continually playing cat-and-mouse with financial institutions
financial institutions
think up clever ways to avoid regulations, which then lead regulators to modify
their regulation activities. Regulators continually face new challenges in a dynam-
ically changing financial system
and unless they can respond rapidly to change,
they may not be able to keep financial institutions from taking on excessive risk.
This problem can be exacerbated if regulators and supervisors do not have the
C H A P T E R 1 0
Economic Analysis of Financial Regulation
235
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