Ministry of higher and secondary specialized

Chapter I. Specific features of English phonetics
1.1. The definition of word stress
Word stress or accent is usually defined as the degree of force or
prominence with which a sound or syllable is uttered. Incidently, the
syllabic structure of a word is closely connected with its accentual
structure as in disyllabic (a word consisting of two syllables) and
polysyllabic (a word consisting of more than three syllables) words;
there may be different degrees of prominence in syllables of initial,
medial or final positions. Hence by word stress we mean singling out
one or more syllable in a word with the help of greater prominence
accompanied by the change of pitch, qualitative and quantitative
features of the sound in relation to other syllable or syllables of the
same word. A.C.Gimson emphasizes that in a stressed syllable there
is relatively greater breath effort and muscular energy1in comparison
with another syllable or syllables of the same word.
The classification of words according to the place and
degree of stress is known as the accentual structure (type,
pattern) of words. Traditionally word accent has the following
phonetic components:
a) In articulatory aspect stress is realized by the great force
of respiration (a stressed syllable has both an increase in
respiratory and laryngeal activity2, duration of articulation (a
stressed syllable m ay belong and tense 3) high frequency of the
vibration of vocal words;
b) Acoustically, a stressed syllable has greater intensity,
duration and pitch or tone of voice than an unstressed syllable;
c) Perceptually, a stressed syllable is characterized by more
loudness, duration and high tone of a sound in comparison with
an unstressed syllable.
Word accent serves not only to single out one or more syllables in a word with the help of intensity, pitch and duration but it
also prosodically com bines and thus, phonetically shapes the
word as a semantic unit in language structure.
According to the significance of prosodic features of intensity, duration and pitch (including qualitative and quantitative features of sounds (mainly vowels) languages are classified into the following three types:
1) Languages, in which intensity is more significant than the
other correlates - duration and pitch to form special prominence
of the stressed syllable, are called stress languages or languages
which have force or dynamic stress or accent. E.g. English,
Russian, Uzbek have dynamic accent;
2) languages, in which a stressed syllable is mainly characterized by a pitch change accompanied by greater duration and intensity are known as tone languages or languages with pitch accent (also called «musical accent»), e. g. Serb, Japanese, Chinese, Thai are tone languages;
3) in some languages the duration of a stressed syllable is
more significant than other factors. This type of languages has a
quantitative stress. E.g. Czech and Greek (6.2).
N.S.Trubetzkoy emphasized the culminative function of
word accent. While a tone language can allow a high pitch to occur on more than one syllable of a word, the basic principle in a
stress language is that only one syllable per word will receive
primary stress. This idea is somewhat vague as there are words
which have two primary stresses. Word accent is culminative in
nature but its number and degree depend on the structure of a
word in syllable-counting languages. For example, kindе а 11^ , 'penmanship, brightness etc. In mora-counting (tone) languages short more as may receive one pitch while long more as have two pitches which are in contrast1. Typologically, in stress languages syllable prominence is culminative, while in tone languages it is not. In the first type stress is syntagmatically conditioned as its place is free, i.e. a stress may be placed on any syllable if we take all the words. In tone languages pitch is paradigm atic.
Some languages use lexical pitch in the same way that English uses stress, i.e. in such languages the same sequence of
segmental phonemes can have different meanings depending on the pitch distinction, e.g. In Thainaa has five meanings: naa - middle tone «field», (noojonaa - low tone «custard apple», naa - falling tone «face», naa - high tone «m other's young brother (or sister), naa - rising tone «to be thick»1. This type of pitch distinction is somewhat similar with that in English in which a noun and
a verb may be distinguished by the place of stress: 'con,tract -
con'tract, 'extract - ex'tract, 'di,gest - di'gest, 'in,suit - in'suit,
'object-ob'ject etc.
D.B. Fry states that differences of stress are perceived by the
listener as variations in a complex pattern bounded by four
physiological dimensions; length, loudness, pitch and quality. The
physical correlates of these perceptual factors are: duration, intensity, fundamental frequency and form ant structure of speech sound waves. If we consider the accentual patterns of English in perceptual terms, there are a number of factors that influence a judgement of stress. The listener relies on differences in: 1) the
length of syllables, 2) the loudness of syllables, 3) the pitch of
syllables, 4) the sound qualities occurring in the syllables, 5) the
kinesthetic memories associated with his own production of the syllables he is receiving2. Instrumental investigations have proved
that in English the fully stressed vow el is characterized by a
greater intensity, a high fundamental frequency, pitch and more
duration in comparison with the unstressed vowels." The relationship between the components of word accent depends on the position of stressed syllable3.
In Russian the main distinction between the stressed and unstressed vowels depends on their length which is accompanied by their quality and intensity, while pitch is irrelevant, though in some cases it contributes to weakening intensity of the stressed vowels and to change their timbre in final positions1.
As to Uzbek it is said that word accent is realized more often with combination of fundamental frequency of tone and intensity, and that the stressed syllable is distinguished from an unstressed syllable, first of all, by a greater force2. We regard that in Uzbek word accent intensity is the main component, while pitch (fundamental frequency of tone) and duration are prosodically additional correlates of it. Acoustically, languages with dynamic stress do not use both intensity and pitch equally. Though there is an exception, for example, the Scandinavian languages use both dynamic stress and tonic accent in more or less equal degree. The given definition of word stress in Uzbek is based on
perceptual dimentions, though it was proved by instrumental investigation. H ow ever, word stress in English, Russian and Uzbek is defined as dynamic but they differ by the action of their physical components and distribution in different syllables in relation to the initial, medial and final positions of polysyllabic words. The components of word stress are in mutual compensation and therefore it is not right to expect that the stressed syllable is always very long, loud and high in tone3. It should be emphasized that word stress and sentence stress
are different, as the terms indicate. Word stress forms a word and
singles out one or more of its syllables, while sentence stress
deals with the formation o f a sentence or phrase and singles out
one or more words in the structure o f a phrase. Thus, sentence
stress is regarded as one of the components of intonation.
These two types of stress, which are used in different levels of investigation, are sometimes mixed4, though they differ with their components and degrees and also with their factors and functions. For example, the word can is often unstressed, but it m ay receive stress in such a sentence as, Now you can see it. Can you see it? I can. In English the accentual patterns of words norm ally preserve their identity in the context of the sentence and that the onset of the
pitch figure of the sentence is usually determined by the accentual
pattern of the word. Probably, owing to this fact some linguists do
not distinguish word stress from sentence stress.
Having analyzed a great number of research works we have found out that Word stress, also called lexical stress, is the emphasis a speaker places on a specific syllable in a multi-syllable word.
Word stress is especially hard for non-native speakers to master. While there are a few conventions and general rules governing which syllable is stressed in a word based on its spelling alone, these conventions are often unreliable.
Before we look at these conventions and their exceptions, let’s discuss how we can indicate syllables and word stress in writing.
Indicating syllables in writing
In this section, we’ll be using different symbols to indicate syllable division in words. For the normal spelling of words, we’ll be using a symbol known as an interpunct( · ) (also called a midpoint, middle dot, or centered dot). For example, the word application would appear as app·li·ca·tion.
We can see that word stress is not used in all languages. Some languages, Japanese or French for example, pronounce each syllable with eq-ual em-pha-sis. Other languages, English for example, use word stress.
Word stress is your magic key to understanding spoken English. Native speakers of English use word stress naturally. Word stress is so natural for them that they don't even know they use it. Non-native speakers who speak English to native speakers without using word stress, encounter two problems:
They find it difficult to understand native speakers, especially those speaking fast.
The native speakers may find it difficult to understand them. So, in this report we will focus our attention on the accentual patterns of English words. The sequence of syllables in the word is not pronounced identically. The syllable or syllables which are uttered with more prominence than the other syllables of the word are said to be stressed or accented. The correlation of varying prominences of syllables in a word is understood as the accentual structure of the word or its stress pattern.
Speech is a continuous stream of sounds, without clear-cut borderlines between them. Stress and rhythm are the key to gaining a natural, smooth-flowing style of speech. People do not speak in separate words, they speak in logical connected groups of words. Even native speakers sometimes “stumble over their words” because they are unaware of the “little tricks” for avoiding the pitfalls. Thus, the teaching of stress and rhythm should be highly valued. 1. Sentence stress We have seen that every word of two or more syllables, when said alone, has a stress on one of its syllables. This is called word-stress. But in connected speech we do not hear a stress on every word. Some words lose their stresses, especially when we talk quickly, other words keep their stresses and these stressed syllables form what is called sentence stress. 1.1 Functions of sentence stress Sentence stress has two main functions: Its first function is to indicate the important words in the sentence (from the point of view of grammar, meaning or the speaker’s attitude). For example: I could `hardly `believe my `eyes. In this sentence the words “hardly”, “believe” and “eyes” are stressed because they are important in meaning. The second function of sentence stress is to serve as the basis for the rhythmical structure of the sentence. The rhythm of English speech is formed by the recurrence of stressed syllables at more or less regular intervals of time and by the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables. Under the influence of the latter peculiarity of the rhythm of English speech, important words in meaning which are usually stressed may be pronounced without sentence stress. For example: Very good. Not very good. t veri `gud ]([`veri `gud ] [`n 1.2 How to teach sentence stress in EFLT We have a very strong impression that many Chinese students speak English with every word stressed, whereas, some students may read texts without modulation in tone. Here are some suggestions for teachers to help students to grasp sentence stress. (1) It is improper to accent all the content words in a word group regardless of the contextual situation, although they are more likely to receive accent than the grammatical (form) words. Only the “telegram” words or the words you would wish a somewhat deaf person to hear first should be accented. (2) To supply students with enough opportunities to decide which words should be stressed in a sentence by themselves, let them read the text silently, think over, then underline the words ought to be stressed. It means that students should comprehend first, then practice, but not model mechanically. (3) The teacher should read texts loudly. When the teacher is reading or playing the tape, students ought to look at the text. The teacher should direct students to pay attention to the lowering, rising, loudness, pause, slowing of sounds. 2. Word stress Words which are usually stressed in English unemphatic speech belong to content words, namely, nouns, adjectives, numerals, notional verbs, adverbs, demonstrative, interrogative, indefinite pronouns and possessive pronouns functioning as nouns. Those that are usually unstressed in English unemphatic speech are form words, namely, auxiliary and modal verbs, verb to be, monosyllabic prepositions, monosyllabic conjunctions and articles. Personal pronouns, possessive pronouns (except absolute ones: mine, hers...), reflexive pronouns, reciprocal pronouns and relative pronouns are also usually unstressed. Examples: I am `reading a `very `interesting `novel. `Dress yourself more `neatly. However, it is necessary to point out that any word in a sentence may be logically stressed if it implies special emphasis or contrast. Examples: We `heard `John `talking (plain statement of fact). We `heard John talking (implied contrast-“but we didn’t see him”). We heard `John talking (implied contrast-“but didn’t hear Mary”). `We heard John talking (implied contrast-“but others didn’t”). We heard John `talking (implied contrast-“but we didn’t hear him singing”). A word that is logically stressed may stand at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence, and is usually the last stressed word in it. Sentence-stress on words following logical stress disappears. Here are some other examples: I `can do the job (Don’t think I can’t do it). I `didn’t `know `you were leaving (I thought it was he who was leaving). 2.1 Stress of auxiliary and modal verbs Auxiliary and modal verbs, as well as the link verb to be, are stressed in the following cases: (1) At the beginning of a sentence, that is to say, in general and alternative questions, e.g. `Are you on `duty to˛day? `Have you `finished your ˛homework? Note that in the examples above, the initial auxiliary or modal verbs or verb to be may be unstressed, but this will make the questions sound casual. (2) When they are in the end, used as short answers to general questions, e.g. `Have you `read the ˛book? `Yes, I `have. However they are not stressed when used as answers to special questions, e.g. `Who is on `duty today? `I am. (3) In contracted negative forms, e.g. He ` won’t be `late. It `doesn’t ˛matter. (4) The auxiliary verb “to do” is stressed in emphatic constructions, e.g. `Do you come a`gain. He `did `write to me. (5) Modal verbs “ought to”, “must” (expressing strong certainty and expectation), “should” ( meaning ought to) and “may” (indicating possibility) are always stressed, e.g. You `ought to `do it `now. It `should be `fine to`morrow. (6) “Will” and “would” expressing determination or desire always receive sentence stress, e.g. Of `course, we `will do our `work `well. 2.2 Stress of prepositions. Prepositions are usually stressed in the following cases: (1) If they consist of two or more syllables and are followed by an unstressed personal pronoun at the end of a sense-group, e.g. The `dog ran `after him. We should note that prepositions consisting of one syllable in this position are usually unstressed. They may have either strong forms or weak forms. `Here is a `letter for you. [f:] or [f] (2) If they are at the beginning of the sentence or after verb “to be” and followed by an unstressed syllable, they may be stressed, e.g. `In the ˛countryside, he `made `many `friends. It’s `in my `pencil-box. (3) Conjunctions are usually stressed if they stand at the beginning of a sentence and are followed by an unstressed word, e.g. `If he ˛comes, please `ring me ˛up. No stress of some content words Some content words are not stressed in certain cases as follows:
1. A word that has just been used is not stressed, as it is a known message, e.g. `How many `times? `Three times.
(2)The word “street” in names of streets is never stressed,
`Wall Street (3) In exclamatory sentences such words as “what”, “how” etc, are usually not stressed in order to give emphasis to the adjectives (or adverbs), e.g. a. What a `good `comrade! b. What `lovely `weather! c. How `hard they are `working! However, “What” in sentence a may be stressed for rhythmical reason as it is followed by an unstressed syllable
4. The word “so” used as a substitute word to stand for a whole statement has no sentence stress. e.g. Is he `coming? I `don’t `think so.
(5) Demonstrative pronouns “this” and “that”, having the meaning of “it” and “the”, are not stressed: He’ll `never for`get that `day when he `joined the `Party (that = the). `When did you `read this? (this = it)
(6) Demonstrative pronoun “this” in “this morning” (afternoon, evening) is not stressed: He ar`rived this `morning.
(7) Adverb “enough” proceeded by an adjective or another adverb is not stressed, e.g. The `book is `easy enough for us to `read. He `ran `fast enough.
(8) Adverbs of degree followed by strongly stressed words often lose their stress, e.g. It’s much `better than I ex˛pected. It’s rather too `late.
Besides those, Word stress is a greater degree of prominence of a syllable or syllables as compared to the other syllables of a word. The stressed syllables are pronounced with more muscular energy than the unstressed ones. On the acoustic level stressed syllables are characterized by increased intensity, duration and fundamental frequency, which correspond to increased loudness, length and pitch on the perception level.
There are two types of word stress: dynamic and musical (tonic).
English word stress is a complex phenomenon formed by interdependent components: loudness, pitch, length and vowel quality.
The syllables in a word have different degrees of prominence. In English they generally distinguish three linguistically relevant degrees of stress: primary, secondary and weak. Some scholars also include tertiary stress, but the first classification is more acceptable for teaching English as a foreign language.
According to Vasilev stress placement can be fixed or free. Both in English and in Russian word stress is not only free, but it is also shifting, it can change its position in different forms of the word. To define the position of word stress in an individual word it is helpful to consider the following factors: the phonological structure of a syllable (syllable weight), the number of syllables in the word, the morphological factor (if the word is simple, complex or compound) and the grammatical category the word belongs to.
They generally distinguish three tendencies that account for the variations of stress patterns in English: recessive, rhythmical and retentive tendencies.
Word stress can perform the following functions: constitutive (it organizes the syllables into a word), identificatory, or recognitive (it helps the listener to recognize the word in the chain ofspeech) and distinctive (it can distinguish grammatical forms and meaning of words).
The correct selection of a syllable or syllables to stress in an English word causes a lot of difficulties to Russian learners. So in teaching pronunciation special attention should be given to the aspects which present difficulties due to the instability of English stress structure, on the one hand, and the differences in English and Russian word stress:
– stress in multi-syllable words, containing secondary stress;
– stress in complex words containing suffixes;
– stress in compound words;
– word-class pairs with shifting stress ('insult – in'sult).
The sequence of syllables in the word is not pronounced identically:
some syllables are more prominent than the others. They are called
stressed syllables. Therefore, stress is a greater degree of prominence of a
syllable or syllables as compared to the other syllables of the word. A