Ministry of higher and secondary specialized

II.2. Functions of English word stress

Translation is an activity comprising the interpretation of the meaning of a text in one language the source text and the production, in another language, of a new, equivalent textthe target text, or translation. The goal of translation is to establish a relation of equivalence of intent between the source and target texts , while taking into account a number of constraints. These constraints include context, the rules of grammar of languages, their writing conventions, their idioms, and the like."Translation" is, etymologically, a "carrying across" or "bringing across": the Latin translatio derives from transferre (trans, "across" + ferre, "to carry" or "to bring"). The modern European languages, Romance, Germanic and Slavic, have generally formed their own equivalent terms for this concept after the Latin model: after transferre or after the kindred traducere ("to lead across" or "to bring across"). Additionally, the Greek term for "translation,"metaphrasis (a "speaking across"), has supplied English with "metaphrase," meaning a literal, or word-for-word, translation, as contrasted with "paraphrase" (a "saying in other words," from the Greek paraphrasis).

A distinction is made between translation, which consists of transferring from one language to another ideas expressed in writing, and interpreting, which consists of transferring ideas expressed orally or by the use of gestures (as in the case of sign language).
The translation process, whether it is for translation or interpreting, can be described simply as:
Decoding the meaning of the source text, and
Re-encoding this meaning in the target language. [30].
To decode the meaning of a text the translator must first identify its component "translation units", that is to say the segments of the text to be treated as a cognitive unit. A translation unit may be a word, a phrase or even one or more sentences. Behind this seemingly simple procedure lies a complex cognitive operation. To decode the complete meaning of the source text, the translator must consciously and methodically interpret and analyze all its features. This process requires thorough knowledge of the grammar, semantics, syntax, idioms and the like of the source language, as well as the culture of its speakers.
The translator needs the same in-depth knowledge to re-encode the meaning in the target language. In fact, often translators' knowledge of the target language is more important, and needs to be deeper, than their knowledge of the source language. For this reason, most translators translate into a language of which they are native speakers. Syntax is the part of grammar which deals with sentences and combinability of words. The core of syntax is the study of the sentence. Syntax embraces on the one hand the structure of the sentence, that is, its components, their structure and the relations between these components, and on the other hand structural and communicative types of sentences.
Anything that is said in the act of communication is called an utterance. Most utterances are sentences, although there are some which are not sentences and are called non-sentence utterances. Thus utterances fall into two groups: sentences and non-sentence utterances.
Sentences may be regarded from the point of view of their structure and their communicative value.
From the point of view of their structure, In Modern English and Uzbeksentences can be:
1. Simple or composite (compound and complex). 1. Sodda gaplar
2. Complete or incomplete (elliptical). 2. Eliptic gaplar
3. Two-member (double-nucleus) or one-member (single-nucleus).3.Bir bo’lakli yoki ikki bo’lakli gaplar.
These three classifications are based on different approaches to the structural organization of sentences and reflect its different aspects.
Honesty is the best policy. (one subject-predicate unit) [16,85].
Still waters run deep. (one subject-predicate unit) [16,85].
You can take a horse to the water, but you cannot make him drink, (two subject-predicate units, or two clauses).[16,85].
That he should have made such a mistake! [16,85].
Uni shunday xato qilishi kerakmidi![18.76].
In this chapter we tried to translate the some examples of English exlamative sentences into Uzbek.
What a lovely bouquet of flowers![16,84]. – in Uzbek it is tanslated as follows: Qanday ajoyib gullar!
What a cute puppy![16,84].- Qanday yoqimli kuchukcha!
What an ugly bug![16,84]. Voyey qanday yoqimsiz narsa-ya!
What a happy ending![16,84]. Qanday ajoyib nihoya!
As we see when we translated such kind of sentences the English word what is translated into Uzbek as qanday.
Now we tried to translate anoter type of exclamatory sentences that begin with "How:"
How bright they've grown in the sunlight![16,84]. – Quyosh nurlarida ularning boy chozishlari qanday ajiyib!
How well he listens![16,84]. – U qanday yazshi tinglovchi!
How slow they crawl![16,84]. – Ular qanday sekin urishmoqda!
How fast you ran![16,84]. – Siz qanchalik tez yugurdingiz!
In these sentences how is also translated as qanday, qanchalik in Uzbek.
English exclamatory sentences containing "so" is translated into Uzbek with the help of word “juda”. For example:
That birthday cake was so good– O’sha kungi tug’ilgan kun torti juda shirin edi!
Sheldon's gift was so amazing– Sheldomning sovg’asi juda ajoyib!
Eugh, that bug is so ugly! - Uff, u kana juda ham qo’rqinchli!
English exclamatory sentences containing "Such" is translated into Uzbek as follows:
He's such a kind soul![16,85]. – U juda mehribon inson!
That's such a gorgeous ring![16,85]. – U juda yaxshi uzuk!
Your puppy is such a cutie![16,85]. – Sizning kuchukchangiz juda yiqimli!
You're such a liar![16,85]. – Siz o’ta ham yolg’onchisiz!
As we analysed English exlamative sentences are translated into Uzbek with the help of different words but they save the meaning.

We have emphasized that stress is one of the constitutive features of a word. Any word, no matter whether it is mono- syllabic, disyllabic or polysyllabic, has its own stress. The con- stitutive function of word stress shapes the word phonetically. join the sound sequences by articulatory means, combines its stressed and unstressed syllables with the help of intensity (loudness), pitch, quantity and quality. The accentual-rhythmic structure is regarded as one of the components of the phonetic structure of a word which has a phonemic structure as well the structure of combinations of phonemes, a syllabie structure. The latter three components of the phonetic structure of a word may be joined thanks to the accentual rhythmic structure which shapes a word into a single unit of utterance and through this, a word may function as a semantic and central linguistic unit. Word stress as a prosodic or suprasegmental unit has a phonological or distinctive function, which means that the stress placement and degrees of accent can distinguish words and their grammatical forms. The distinctive function of word ac- cent is closely connected with lexical and morphological as- pects. When words may be distinguished by the position of stress, some linguists prefer to call it lexical stress or lexical function of stress. If the position or degree of accent can distinguish grammatical forms(parts ofspeech and morphemes),it performs morphological function which is known as grammatical stress. There are two types of grammatical stress: (1) morphological and (2) demarcative.The morphological stress exists in English,Russian and Uzbek languages in which the morphological categories (morphemes and parts of speech) may be distinguished by the position of accent, e. g. 'present (a verb) - pre'sent (a noun); in Russian: но ги -ноги; in Uzbek: olma' (a noun) «an apple» - 'olma (imperative form of a verb) «do not take». The demarcative stress serves as a boundary or a signal, for example, in Polish it is common for the second syllable from the end to be stressed Thus, the distinctive function of word accent performs both lexical and grammatical functions simultenously.

The distinctive function makes word aecent a separate, suprasegmental or prosodic, phonological unit which is called by V. A. Vassilyev the word-accenteme in accordance with - emic linguistic terminology. The number of word-accentemes in a language with free stress is determined by the number of the latter's distinctive degrees'.
In Russian and Uzbek among the degrees of word accent only two of them, i.e. primary stress vs. weak stress may be con- trasted which are regarded as two word-accentemes in a language with free stress is determined by the numberof thelatter's distinctive degrees.
In Russian and Uzbek among the degrees of word accent only two of them,i.e.primary stress vs.weak stress may be contrasted which are regarded as two word-accentemes,e.g.in russian: муки-муки(word -distinctive funtion); in Uzbek: átlas «a material» atlás «atlas» (word - distinctive function), yozmá «written form» yo'zma «do not write» (form-distinctive function).
In English primary and weak word accentemes only perform a word-distinctive function) e.g. contest /kontest/ n. - to contest /kan'test/ v.; transport /'trænspo:t/ n.-to transport /træns p3:t/ v, absent /'æb-s(a)nt/ adj. - to absent /e bsent/, o bsent, /a bsent/ v, perfect /'p3:fikt/ adj. - to perfect /po'fekt/, /'pafikt/ v. In these minimal pairs word accenteme appears in its morphological aspect distinguishing different parts of speech, though there may be some free variations of the phonemic or accentual structures of words, e. g. to perfect /pa'feku I'pefikt/, to decrease /di kri:s/, /'di:kri:s/, to increase in kri:s/, /inkri:s/, contact /kan'tækt/, /kɔntækt/, to export leks pa:t/, /'ekspa:/ to prospect /pras pekt/, /prospekt/, to subject Isab'd3ekt/, /'sabd5ikt/. Compound words with the main stress on the first com. ponent and tertiary on the second component can be distin- guished from free word: combinations by the contrast tertiary stress vs. primary stress, e. g: a 'blue,bird - a ,blue'bird, a glass,house - a glass'house, a 'black,board "board, a white ,house - 'a ,white 'house. These minimal pairs may confirm the difference between the functions of word accent and sentence stress (in word com- binations) and in the latter case we can notice the function of stress signaling the boundaries of the words. In many cases word accent cannot perform a delimitative function because of the non -regularity of difference between the degrees of stress on the first and second syllables. In Russian words the secondary stress always precedes primary stress, and, due to this, it may mark the beginning of a word. As to Uzbek primary stress signals the boundary of a word and the next word usually begins with a weak stress. Hence, Russian and Uzbek word accent has a delimitative function. The onset of stress is determined by the morphological structure of English words. The onset of stress strengthens the ini- tial consonant or consonant cluster, which marks th e beginning of a word or morpheme for the listener. This phenomenon is easily observed in such utterances as ,sell'fish, 'shell-,fish vs., self- 'interest, 'shelf-,ice; the 'street, ,two 'streets, Bay,street, vs. ,this 'treat; 'race-,track vs. last'rack, 'test ,run. In each of these sets of expressions the consonant sequence between the syl- lables is the same, but the breaks vary with the onset of stress as determined by morphological structure. Besides these types of signalling a word boundary, there are cases when stress- conditioned allophones occur in such minimal pairs as a'name la'neim/- an'aim /an' eim/ and strong allophones of consonants serve to illustrate the prosodic signalling of morpheme breaks as in minimal pair ,buy'tin /bar'tın /- bite in /,bait 'in/ etc. Thus, he delimitative function is determined by the syllabic and mor- phological boundaries with the assistance of prosodic features. Word accent in English has a morphonological aspect which is usually known as grammatical function of stress alternations or morphonological function of word accent. Free word stress in English is characterized by shifting its position and degrees in vari- ous word derivatives representing different grammatical (morpho- logical) categories, e. g. 'diplomat /'dipləumat/ – diplomacy Idıp ləuməsı/- diplomatic /dipləu'mætik/, mechanic /mi kænik/ - mechanician /mekə'nıfn/ cian /,daiagnos tilən/, history /histan/- historian /his to:ran/ , cus- tody /kastadı/ - custodian /kAs taudjan/, placid /'plæsid/ placidity /plæ'sıdıtı/, plural /'pluarəl/– plurality /plua ræliti/. In the examples cited, besides stress alternations, there are phonemic alternations which are not determined by their morpho- logical position. Both types of alternations - phonemic (or seg- mental) and prosodic (or suprasegmental) are studied by morphonology (see chapter X) a special linguistic level or aspect between phonology and morphölogy (grammar). Morphonologi- cal function of word accent is in close relationship to its distinc- tive (phonological) function owing to the fact that word-formation in English uses stress alternations (also phonemic alternations) which contribute to their semantic identification. The following function of word accent or as a phonological unit word-accenteme is called recognitive or identificatory which means that the correct accentuation of words facilitates their recognition and comprehension", and semantic identifica- tion. Wrong accentuation of words may destroy their semantic (distinctive ) function. The recognitive function of word accent is both theoretically and practically important. All the functions of word accent are in close relationship with each other and wrong accentuation (misplace of the degree and positions of word accent etc.) distroys the functions and, thus, leads to in-comprehensive speech communication. The latter process is a result of the accen- tual interference in language learning. English, Russian and Uzbek have different accentual patterns of words, though they all have free dynamic stress. Therefore, each accentual pattern of an English word should be explained separately in terms of tone (pitch) sequences. For example, the word educational consists of three tone sequences: /edju:/- pre-tonic sequence, /kei/ tonic syl- lable, /Janə1/ - post-tonic sequence; 'purify has tonic syllable /pju:al and post-tonic sequence /ri-fai/, internationalization has five pretonic sequences /i'nta næ'Jn ola'ı/ tonic syllable /zei/ and post-tonic sequence /Jan/. Tonic syllable coincides with the posi- tion of primary stress.