Магистерская диссертация

1.4 Ways to resolve difficult life situations
The term "resolution of difficult life situations" may have different meanings in theoretical and practical studies [Tobalov, 2004; Shmelev, 2017].
Yu.P. Tobalov writes about the resolution of TJS as a traumatic experience [Tobalov, 2004]. Moreover, the result of such a passage can be both “negative” and “successful”. A negative outcome is understood as “all sorts of mental disorders, disorders of self-awareness and behavior, conflict, social deviations, as well as such psychological phenomena as loss of meaning, alienation, guilt” [ibid., p. 46]. Under the "successful" passage through a traumatic experience is understood not only the absence of negative psychophysiological indicators of trouble, but also "a change in attitudes, value-semantic sphere, which makes it possible to go through pain and use suffering as a means of realizing the inner strength of the personality" [ibid., S. 47].
Often in studies devoted to difficult life situations, the term “coping” is used to denote the resolution of TJS, along with which the concepts of “coping”, “coping behavior” are used in Russian-language sources. These categories are usually understood as “behavioural, cognitive and emotional actions of a person taken by him to overcome difficult situations and adapt to the circumstances that have arisen” [Khachaturova, 2013].
The concept of "coping" was first introduced by L. Murphy in 1962 as part of research on ways to overcome the demands put forward by developmental crises by children [Karvasarsky, 2000, p. 218]. The idea of coping received further active development in the framework of research on psychological stress conducted by R. Lazarus [ Lazarus , 1993; Lazarus , Folkman , 1984, 1988]. The study of coping behavior is currently complicated by the fact that in modern psychology there is no common understanding of coping behavior, as well as the classification of its strategies [Khachaturova, 2013; Shmelev, 2017]. However, in his article M.R. Khachaturova [Khachaturova, 2013] identifies a number of general criteria for classifying various methods that a person can use to overcome the difficulties that have arisen: the direction of a person’s actions, the intensity of coping, the adaptability of the chosen copings and their modality (i.e., the psychological sphere with which the strategies are correlated).
Considering coping behavior strategies from the point of view of the direction of human actions in DLS, one can single out: strategies focused on the situation itself, on oneself, or on something else [ Moos , Schaefer , 1986; Lazarus , Folkman , 1988; Amirkhan , 1999; Skinner , Edge , 2002; Weber , 2003]. This category includes problem-focused and emotion-focused strategies [ Lazarus , Folkman , 1988]; strategies focused on evaluation, on the problem, or on emotions [ Moos , Schaefer , 1986]; problem solving strategies, seeking social support and avoidance [ Amirkhan 1999].
According to the degree of intensity, coping strategies can be divided into resilient coping (active coping) and passive coping, which is expressed in the use of non-constructive strategies [ Maddi , 1999]. Close to this position is the classification of adaptability or maladaptation of coping behavior by E. Frydenberg. She distinguishes several groups of strategies depending on the success of resolving the problems that have arisen: 1) appeal to others, which cannot be unambiguously assessed as productive or unproductive; 2) effective coping, expressed in a cognitive analysis of the problem, maintaining an optimistic attitude; 3) ineffective coping, expressed in an avoidance strategy [ Frydenberg , 2004].
Based on the criterion of coping modality, the following types of strategies are distinguished: cognitive, emotional, and behavioral [ Heim , 1988].
However, according to M.R. Khachaturova, the most complete classification of coping strategies is presented in the works of E. Skinner [ Skinner , 1995]. She distinguishes three characteristics of coping behavior: episodic, adaptive and interactive, understood as the interaction between a person and the environment. Based on these criteria, E. Skinner created a classification called the “coping family”, which contains twelve sections consisting of strategies similar in direction [ Skinner , Edge , 2002].
Difficulties with the allocation of a general classification of coping strategies, as noted by M.R. Khachaturov, raise several debatable questions on the problem of coping behavior, which are actively discussed by the scientific community at the present time: the first one concerns the effectiveness of coping behavior, the second one - whether the chosen strategies are dispositional or situational in nature, and, finally, the third question lies in the field of psychological diagnostics of coping behavior.
Otherwise, L.I. understands the permission of TZhS. Antsyferova [Antsyferova, 1994]. She considers the resolution of TLS as coping, understanding by this term certain actions of the subject that are on the border of his adaptive capabilities or even exceed his reserves and are aimed at preserving, protecting and asserting the value that is under threat in this situation. The author also identifies 4 groups of basic coping strategies:
1. Transformative coping strategies.
2. Techniques of adaptation (changing one's own characteristics and attitudes to the situation).
3. Auxiliary methods of self-preservation in situations of difficulties and misfortunes.
4. The formation of two vital worlds and the splitting of consciousness under the influence of mass disasters.
F.E. Vasilyuk, in a monograph devoted to the analysis of overcoming critical situations (as noted earlier, this concept is synonymous with TLS), considers the resolution of TLS within the framework of the activity approach of A.N. Leontiev and introduces the concept of "experience" [Vasilyuk, 1984]. This term is used to denote a special type of internal activity aimed at the semantic correlation of consciousness and being, and as a result of which the psychological world is restructured and the meaningfulness of life increases, which allows a person to endure certain (usually difficult) life events, to overcome a critical situation.⁹
Further, the author singles out the 2 most thoroughly analyzed types of experiences in the psychological literature, dividing them into "coping" (conditionally successful strategies) and "protection" (conditionally unsuccessful strategies). It is noted that in coping, the emphasis is on adaptation to reality, which allows satisfying needs, while the goal of defenses is to eliminate, prevent or mitigate displeasure. The following characteristics of the course of experience in the form of protection are also distinguished:
- forced, automatic, mostly unconscious and rigid processes;
- denial, distortion, concealment from oneself of reality, escape from it, self-deception;
- behavior that does not take into account the holistic situation, acting "through";
- lack of search for help and rejection of the proposed one, or the desire to lay everything on the helper, self-withdrawing from solving their own problems.
Experience in the form of coping can be characterized as follows:
- purposeful, largely conscious and flexible processes;
- orientation towards the recognition and acceptance of reality, active study of the real situation;
- realistic consideration of the whole situation, the ability to sacrifice the particular and momentary, the ability to break the whole problem into small, potentially solvable tasks;
- active search and acceptance of help.
The results of both types of experience are also different. Coping provides orderly, controlled satisfaction of needs and impulses, while defenses lead to partial improvements (for example, local reduction of tension, elimination of unpleasant or painful sensations) at the cost of worsening the whole situation, objective disintegration of behavior. In addition, coping leads to the accumulation of individual experience of experiencing life's problems, and defenses save from shock and give the subject time to prepare other, more effective ways of experiencing.
1.5 Ways to resolve difficult life situations by representatives of various personal adaptations

The choice of one or another way of dealing with a difficult life situation can be influenced by many factors, including the resources that a person has to solve such problems. At the same time, resources are understood as “everything that a person uses to solve a difficult situation” [Streltsova, 2003, p. 96].

Researchers consider various resources available to an individual to overcome a difficult situation: from social resources to the physiological characteristics of a person. Some authors, for example K. Muzdybaev, C . R. _ Snyder , C. _ E. _ Ford , R. _ N. _ Harris believes that in TLS a person connects the widest possible range of resources, namely: the resources of the surrounding, primarily social, environment, i.e. specific physical or moral and psychological assistance provided by representatives of the social environment; personal resources associated with mental qualities and abilities [cit. according to: Shmelev, 2017].
K.A. Bochaver in his study showed that both situational factors (the strength of sympathy and love in actual relationships) and personal dispositions (friendliness, dominance and optimism) can act as resources for coping with SAD [Bochaver, 2012].
I.A. Yakunin found a relationship between individual characteristics of a person (properties of temperament, the profile of the lateral organization of the brain, age and gender) and the choice of certain strategies for problem- and emotionally-oriented strategies [Yakunin, 2011].
In our understanding, personal adaptations, according to P. Ware and V. Joines, can also be considered as resources for resolving TLS, since, as was shown earlier, they are patterns of behavior used by people for survival, coping, and also meeting the expectations put forward by the environment.
It should be emphasized that, as V. Joines and I. Stewart point out [ Joines , Stewart , 2002], all people to some extent demonstrate the behavior characteristic of each of the six adaptations. More often than not, however, two of them are best mastered: one survival strategy and one acceptance strategy.¹⁰
Similarly, we can say that all of us, to one degree or another, resort to all four ways of responding in TLS: defense, coping, mastery, maladaptation. However, there are strategies that we use more often. From this follows the general theoretical hypothesis of our study : according to P. Ware and V. Joins, representatives of one personal adaptation more often choose certain strategies from existing methods for resolving a difficult life situation (protection, coping, mastering, maladaptation).
The criterion for correlating personal adaptations according to P. Ware and V. Joins and methods for resolving a difficult life situation, identified by I.M. Shmelev, the “activity/passivity” characteristic used in both classifications can serve. Based on this, it can be assumed that representatives of adaptations that are in the upper plane of T. Cuyler's Evaluation Matrix - Overreactive Enthusiast and Responsible Workaholic, will choose coping and mastery as the preferred ways of responding in TLS. Adaptations that prefer a passive approach to problem solving, such as the Playful Rebel and the Creative Dreamer, will tend to resort to defensiveness and maladaptation as strategies for dealing with SAD.
More difficult for us is the question of correlating two adaptations located in both halves of the “activity/passivity” plane: the Brilliant Skeptic and the Charming Manipulator. To formulate a hypothesis about their preferred ways of responding in DLS, let us turn to the detailed characteristics of adaptations, which contain their distinctive features and behaviors.
Thus, when describing the Brilliant Skeptic, V. Joines and I. Stewart [ Joines , Stewart , 2002] use the following formulations: “they often think in the most clear, sharp and detailed way”, “show a tendency to foresee what can go wrong, and think in advance possible actions”, “look and act “correctly” in order to avoid humiliating or embarrassing situations for themselves”, “like what is clear and unambiguous”. As can be seen from the description, Skeptics, firstly, do not tolerate uncertainty well, which contradicts the idea of mastery behavior. Secondly, they tend to control themselves and the situation so as not to look “ridiculous”, “caught off guard” in the eyes of others, which is inconsistent with the essence of maladaptive behavior in DLS. In our opinion, Skeptics can resort to the use of such defenses as intellectualization, rationalization, moralization, compartmentalization, projection due to well-developed thought processes. In addition, they may be characterized by coping, in particular problem-oriented, since Skeptics are good at planning, organizing, and “passivity is perceived as a vulnerability” [ Joines , Stewart , 2002, p. 53]. Thus, our assumption is that members of the Brilliant Skeptic adaptation will tend to use defenses and copings as ways of responding in DFA.
Let's move on to a description of the features characteristic of the representatives of the Charming Manipulator adaptation. Here we find such features: “love action and excitement, excitement”, “often become entrepreneurs”, “want to try all the pleasures of life”, “the desire for power and the denial of feelings”, “have problems with rules and social norms” [ Ware , 1983, c . fifteen]. The unwillingness to listen to their feelings and the propensity to take risks allows us to put forward the hypothesis that Manipulators may more often than others resort to maladaptive strategies, in particular in the form of chemical addictions. And such features as the tendency to disregard social rules, the need for emotional arousal and a sense of comfort in conditions of uncertainty indicate the possible non-adaptation of their behavior in DLS, that is, the choice of mastery as a strategy for resolving a difficult life situation. As a result, we can formulate a hypothesis regarding this adaptation: the Charming Manipulator in a difficult life situation tends to resort to strategies of mastery and maladaptation.
The presented model is built on the basis of theoretical ideas about difficult life situations and personal adaptations according to P. Ware and V. Joines. To test it, an empirical research plan was developed and implemented, the description and results of which are presented below in Chapter 2.
findings
Difficult life situations that arise in the life of each person may require him to use a wide variety of resources to overcome. Possible resources can be both ways of dealing with difficult situations, as well as personality traits and patterns of behavior formed in childhood, while the latter can determine a person's preferences in choosing strategies.
1. Personal characteristics and patterns of behavior formed in childhood can be described by six personal adaptations described by P. Ware and W. Joins within the framework of a transactional-analytical approach.
Chapter 2. An empirical study of the relationship between ways to resolve difficult life situations and personal adaptations
2.1 Organization of the study
Based on the results of a theoretical analysis of existing ideas, as well as on the basis of our own assumptions, we proposed a theoretical model that describes the features of resolving difficult life situations by owners of various personal adaptations. Based on this, we will designate the goal, object and subject of research, theoretical and empirical hypotheses, tasks and methods of research.