The SPE: Ethics and E x t e n s i o n s
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Madness in Normal People
Do you know what you have done? [Sherlock Holmes asked
Sigmund Freud] You have succeeded in taking my methods—
observation and inference—and applying them to the inside of
a subject's head.
—Nicholas Meyer, The Seven Percent Solution
One of the most dramatic outcomes of the SPE was the way in which many
healthy, normal young men began to behave pathologically in a short time. B e -
cause our selection procedures ruled out preexistent, so-called premorbid, dis-
positions as causal factors, I wanted to understand the processes by which
psychopathological symptoms first develop in ordinary people. Thus, in addition
to stimulating me to study shyness and time perspective, my experiences in the
SPE stimulated a new line of theorizing and experimental research on how nor-
mal people first begin to "go mad."
Most of what is known about abnormal functioning comes from retrospective
analyses that attempt to figure out what factors might have caused the current
mental disturbance in a given person—much like Sherlock Holmes's strategies of
inferential reasoning from effects back to causes. Instead, I tried to develop a
model that focuses on the processes involved in the development of symptoms of
mental disorders, such as phobia and paranoia. People are motivated to generate
explanations when they perceive that some expectation about their functioning is
violated. They try to make sense of what went wrong when they fail in academic,
social, business, athletic, or sexual situations—depending on how important
such a discrepancy is to their self-integrity. The rational search process for mean-
ing is distorted by cognitive biases that focus attention on classes of explanation
that are not appropriate in the current analysis. Thus, overusing explanations
that focus on "people" as the causes of one's reactions may bias the search
for meaning toward developing symptoms characteristic of paranoid thinking.
Similarly, explanations focused on "environments" as the causes of one's reac-
tions may bias that search toward the symptom development typical of phobic
thinking.
This new model of the cognitive and social bases of "madness" in normal,
healthy people has been validated in our controlled laboratory experiments. We
have found, for example, that pathological symptoms may develop in up to one
third of normal participants in the rational process of their trying to make sense
of unexplained sources of a r o u s a l .
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We also demonstrated that college students
with normal hearing who were made to experience partial temporary deafness by
means of hypnotic suggestion soon began to think and act in paranoid ways, be-
lieving that others were hostile to them. Thus, undetected hearing impairment in
the elderly may be a contributor to their development of paranoid disorders—and
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