Литература по учебной дисциплине «Практика устной и письменной речи»

2.3. The logical classification of semantic changes
Semantic changes can be generally observed in the denotative meaning of the word (restriction, specialization, extension, and generalization) or in its connotative component (amelioration and pejoration of meaning).
Restriction of meaning occurs when a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower sense in which it only denotes some of the objects which it previously denoted. E.g., meat originally meant “food and drink in general”, now—“edible flesh”; fowl meant “any bird”, now—“a domestic hen or cook”.
If a word with a new meaning is used in the specialized vocabulary of some professional group, we speak of specialization of meaning, e.g., to glide meant “to move gently smoothly”, now—“to fly with no engine”.
Extension of meaning is the application of the word to a wider variety of referents, e.g., target meant “a small round shield”, now—“anything that is fired at”; pirate meant “one who robs on the sea”, now—“any one who robs with violence”.
If the word with the extended meaning passes from the specialized vocabulary into common use, the result of the semantic change is the generalization of meaning, e.g., barn meant “a place for storing barley”, now—“a covered building for storing grain”; pioneer—soldier, now—“one who goes before”; the meaning of the word vehicle that meant “a trolley” spread on all the means of transport.
Amelioration, or elevation of meaning, is a type of semantic change that happens when a word’s meaning improves or becomes more positive over time. Many words have been elevated in meaning through the association with the ruling class, e.g., knight meant “a young servant”, now—“a man who fought for his feudal”; minister meant “a servant”, now—“an important public official”.
Pejoration, or degradation of meaning, is a type of semantic change that happens when a word’s meaning becomes more negative, lower in social sense, acquires some derogatory emotive charge. E.g., knave first meant “boy”, then “servant”, now it is a term of abuse and scorn; villain meant “farm servant”, now—“scoundrel”.