Литература по учебной дисциплине «Практика устной и письменной речи»

B. Contiguity of meaning typically implies metonymy, which can be defined as transference of the name of one object or phenomenon onto another upon the principle of a certain closeness/inclusion between them. The transfer may be conditioned by different relations between the primary and secondary meaning, such as spatial, temporal, causal, symbolic, instrumental, functional, and others. Spatial relations, e.g., are present when the name of the place is used for the people occupying it: town (inhabitants), the House (the members of the House of Lords or Commons). The thing may be named after material it is made of, e.g., the word paper(s)means “the material and the documents”. Instrumental relations are obvious when the instrument for the agent is used instead of the agent: the best pens of the day (the best modern writers), in hand (handwriting). The functional relations between the primary and secondary meanings appear in the result of the functional transfer of the name from one subject to another, e.g., goalkeeper first meant “the guard of the gate” and later “the person who defended gates in football”.
The so-to-say quantitative type of metonymy is synecdoche, which consists in naming part for the whole or vise versa: e.g., ABC (alphabet), man (humanity); The ship’s captain calls out, “All hands on deck!” (the noun hands signifies the whole person of each sailor.); The messenger was followed by a pair of heavy boots.
A contiguity-based substitution of any word or phrase for a proper name creates metonymic antonomasia: e.g., the Bard for William Shakespeare, the City of Lights for Paris, etc.
Expressive attributes that are based on contiguity represent metonymic epithets: e.g., Ivan the Terrible; prophetic judgment, etc.
Besides similarity and contiguity of meaning, semantic changes can be those of exaggeration, diminution, and contrariety. These changes can also involve metaphoric and metonymic transferences.
Hyperbole is an exaggeration of a certain quantity or quality of an object or phenomenon. Such statements are not meant to be understood literally; they express an emotionally-charged attitude of the speaker to what is spoken about. E.g., I haven’t seen you for ages! It’s absolutely maddening.
Meiosisis a diminution of a certain quantity or quality of an object or phenomenon. As an opposite of hyperbole, it is also emotional rather than rational. E.g., I’ll be back in a second, Give me at least a drop of water—I’m thirsty!
Litotes is a double negation with a positive meaning. It can be considered as a specific type of meiosis in which the diminutive or negative depicting of a certain quantity or quality is expressed but denied. E.g., John’s behaviour was not disrespectful.
Contrary to the latter device, irony is a figure of a seemingly positive expression with an implied negative/critical meaning. E.g.: What a noble illustration of the tender laws of this favored country!—they let the paupers go to sleep! (Ch. Dickens).