Лекции по теоретической грамматике английского языка для студентов

exophoric 
reference (
deixis
: 
Can you see that?
), or refers to an 
item within the text, hence 
endophoric 
reference. The two possible directions of 
endophoric reference are backward (
anaphoric 
r.; 
direct 
anaphora: 
I met a man. 
He was wearing ...
, 
indirect 
anaphora: 
It is a solid house. The walls are thick 
...) 
or forward (
cataphoric 
r.: ... 
the house whose walls are thick
); in the case of a 
reference to an item of which there is (in the given situation) only one instance, 
we talk about 
homophora 
(e.g. 
Place the books on the table please
). The 
relationship between two items in which both refer to the same person or thing 
and one stands as a linguistic antecedent of the other is called 
coreference 
(compare 
He saw himself in the mirror 
with 
He saw him in the mirror
).
Reference (semantic level) 
EXOPHORA 
ENDOPHORA 
(situational)
(textual) 
ANAPHORA 
CATAPHORA 
(referring to preceding text) 
(referring to following 
text) 
Examples: 
ANAPHORA: Three blind mice see how they run. 
CATAPHORA: I would never have believed it. They've accepted the proposal. 

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EXOPHORA: (a child making noise). Mother: Stop doing that here. I'm trying to work. 
Types of reference: 
a.
PERSONAL – lexical items replaced with personal pronouns, possessive 
adjectives, possessive pronouns … 
b.
DEMONSTRATIVE – realised by deictic terms: demonstrative adverbs (here, 
now …), nominal demonstratives (this, these …), definite article (the). 
c.
COMPARATIVE – on the basis of identity (same), similarity (such), 
difference (other, else), numerative (more, less), epithets (better). 
Examples of types of reference: 
PERSONAL:
John has moved to a new house. 

 
 
He had it built last year. 
DEMONSTRATIVE: 
I like the push-ups and the sit-ups. 
 
These 
are 
my 
favourites. 
COMPARATIVE: 
Mary was a lady in mid-20s.
Such people can't change a flat tyre.