Lectures on history of medicine

Table # 1

Prominent natural scientific

discoveries of XVIII-XIXc., incidental with medicine

Year	Author	Essence of his discovery
1756	Lomonosov M.V. (1711-1765)- Russian scientist, academician of Petersburg academy of science (1745)	Law of conservation of mass in chemical changes
1774	La Vuasie Antaean Loran (1743-1794)- French chemists	Regardless of Lomonosov M.V. opened the same law
1838	Shleiden Matthias Jacob (1804-1881) – German botanist	Theory of cellular texture of plants
1839	Shwann Theodore (1810-1882) – German zoologist and physiologist	Theory of cellular texture of animals and plants
1841	Mayer Julius Robert (1814-1878) – German doctor and naturalist	Law of conservation of energy and determination of mechanical heat equivalent
1843 1847	Ghoul James Prescott (1818-1889) – English physician Gelmgholtz German Ludwig Ferdinand (1821-1894) – German physician, physiologist, naturalist, member correspondent of Petersburg academy of science (1868)	Regardless of Mayer opened the same law
1859	Darwin Charles (1809-1882) – English biologist, member correspondent of Petersburg academy of science (1867)	Doctrine of evolution «Origin of species by natural selection, or preservation of selected species in struggle for existence»

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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3.Вам жить в XXI веке: Сборник / Сост. Г.А. Юркина. - М.: Мол.гвардия, 1986. - 206 с.

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   Сорокина Т.С. История медицины / Т.С. Сорокина. - М.: Медицина, 1994. - 384с.
   

8. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб. заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия», 2005.-560с.

9. Стоун И. Происхождение: Роман - биография Чарлза Дарвина: Пер. с англ. / И. Стоун. - 2-е изд. - М.: Политиздат, 1985. - 447с.

10. Петров Б.Д. От Гиппократа до Семашко: преемственность идей [Очерки и портреты] / Б.Д. Петров. - М.: Медицина, 1990. - 168с.


6. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN KAZAKHSTAN
Medicine of Ancient Kazakhstan. Development of medicine in the Middle Ages

Two thousand years ago in territory of Kazakhstan there lived various tribes - usuni, alany, kangly. Basically they were engaged in cattle breeding and consequently often changed places of parking - wandered. They grew up horses. Inhabitants of river valleys of Syr-Dariya, Chu, Irtysh except for cattle breeding, were engaged also in agriculture.

There, where the river Arys runs into Syr-Dariya, was a green oasis. Above it the big hill towers. Local residents speak, that on a place of this hill there was a city of Otrar with magnificent palaces, minarets, with beautiful streets. During that far time for territories of Kazakhstan there were also other cities similar to Otrar. It were Sauries, Sauran, Taraz, Kulan.

On the grounds of Kazakhstan from the east hordes Mongols - Tatars have rushed in the beginning of XIII c., in 1218. People of Kazakhstan courageously battled against conquerors, but they could not stop an army of aggressors. Only in XVI c. the Mongolian yoke was overthrow on a greater part of territory of Kazakhstan. With falling the Mongolian yoke in Kazakhstan uniform language and a uniform facilities began to be formed.

In the beginning of XVII c. Kazakhs shared on three zhuz - the Senior, Middle, Younger. The Kazakh society at that time consisted of two social groups. They differed to political and legal attributes. They were ak suiek (white bone), concerned chingizids (descendants of Chingiz - khan and hajji - descendants of associates of prophet Mohamed. Other groups concerned to kara suiek (black bone). The Supreme authority concentrated in hands of khan. Attempts of khans to create the uniform centralized state, having united all Kazakh zhuz, did not give due results.

In XVIII c. on territory of Kazakhstan there was no uniform state, and separate khanstvo which were in constant enmity. Heavy was externally - political position. The main danger proceeded from the east, from Jungar khanstvo.

Abulhair - khan has collected notable people, has told about heavy position, about enemies. Long spoke gathered and have decided to pass under the Russian citizenship. Empress has accepted ambassadors of Kazakhstan on October, 30th, 1730. In 1731 Abulhair - khan and his citizens have sworn about voluntary connection to Russia.

In the history of Kazakh people voluntary connection to Russia was of great importance. More advanced Russian economy and culture have rendered progressive influence on economic and cultural development of Kazakhstan. Also it was necessary to consider the period of connection by the beginning of occurrence of medical aid in territory of Kazakhstan. Before connection in Kazakhstan there were no neither doctors, nor medical institutions.

Roots of the Kazakh national medicine leave in an extreme antiquity. Studying of the written sources which have reached us testifies, that people had various knowledge and skills on doctoring, in one cases benefited people, in others - obvious harm, in the third, appeared indifferent collected and cultivated.

People occupied territories of Central Asia and Kazakhstan had three large religions of the East influence: zoroastrism, Buddhism, Islam. On the large territory the final victory was gained with Islam, and it became officially recognized religion.

Thus, the national medicine has arisen on the basis of practical experience of many generations. Anatomic knowledge at Kazakhs were deep, it was promoted by knowledge of anatomy of animals. They considered as principal organs of the person brain, heart, liver. The big attention was given influence of mentality on health that follows from the legend. Great wise men have asked how long he lives. He has answered: "1000". Every joyful, cheerful and useful day he equated with one year.

Pregnancy and delivery at people of Kazakhstan have been surrounded by an aura of mystery and superstition. Delivery accepted by women whom Kazakhs named kindik sheshe, translated as mother who tie up umbilical cord. They could make turning, Caesarian section. The first 40 days of baby’s life were considered very dangerous. In conditions of nomadic way of life care of newborns had great value the cradle of a special design – besik.

For treatment of the population widely used medicinal grasses: as expectorant applied inula, for treatment gastric - intestinal diseases - grass ("kumuzdyk"), for increase it is intimate - a vascular tone - grass ("kyzylsha"). According to separate authors, doctors of Kazakhstan knew 247 medicinal grasses.

The important place in treatment had horse and camel milk of various preparations (koumiss and shubat). Koumiss used for treatment of tuberculosis, scurvy, anemia, illnesses of heart and a stomach.

Healers rendered the surgical help. Skilled dargers (healers) could make laparotomy, herniotomy, remove a cataract.

One of the greatest disasters among people was smallpox. The local population did not know the reasons of occurrence of this illness and measures of struggle with it. They wandered from the places amazed by smallpox, also did not come back. They spent artificial infection - vaccination by natural smallpox.

The magic medicine was showed widely in Kazakhstan in ways of diagnostics, treatment, and the prevention of diseases.

To protect from illnesses Kazakhs hang on a neck the fish teeth, the wolf legs, feathers and legs of an owl. During pregnancy the woman should not eat camel meat. It was considered, that differently she would pregnant 12 months as the camel.

Magic "diagnostics" was based on various ways of a guessing. Globule divination was widely spread on the territory of Kazakhstan.

But the leading role in magic ways of diagnostics and treatment belonged to baxes. Baxes before the beginning of a session got acquainted with patients.

Historically compounded social – economic culture of Kazakhstan promoted to origin of great scientists.

Al-Farabi (870 - 950), the native from Otrar, has created immortal works on philosophy, mathematics, music, history, medicine. In the published works medical views were presented by separate fragments in philosophical treatises, in the medical treatise "About objection to Galen in occasion of its disagreements with Aristotle concerning bodies of a human body ". The ideas stated in this treatise quite correspond to modern representations about medicine as sciences, about the reasons of occurrence, treatment and the prevention of illnesses.

In Karahanid state existing at X-XIc. on the territory of Kazakhstan the outstanding poet and thinker was Zhusup Balasuguni (b.1020) . His work “Kutadgu bilik” (“Beneficial Knowledge”) became known in many countries. He described healers, doctors, etc.

Healer O. Tleukabyl uly (1397-1492) was born in Semirechie. By order of khan he began to write his medical work “Shipagerlic bayan” (“Healer’s confession”) in 1470 till 1480. The book consisted from three parts; he described organism and environment relations, questions of diagnostics and treatment. He gave 10 medical directions which still actual nowadays.

Works of great Al-Farabi, poet – philosopher Z. Balasuguni, scientist- healer O. Tleukabyl uly big influenced on development of Kazakh and world medicine.
Medicine during the period of connection of Kazakhstan to Russia and the bourgeois reforms in the XIX century
In 1731 after connection of Younger zhuz to Russia doctors of the Boundary commissions appeared on territory of Kazakhstan.

The primary goal of these doctors was epidemiological supervision: not to admit penetration of epidemic illnesses into the central provinces of Russia. Rendering of medical aid to the population was not included into duties of doctors of the Boundary commissions.

After 101 year’s connection to Russia, on March, 15th, 1832 Asian committee has been established the position of doctor for health services of the population in Younger zhuz. The first doctor was A.A.Sergachev who has finished in 1824 medical faculty of the Kazan University. In 1840 under the petition of khan of horde it was authorized to have the midwife in horde. But Only on April, 24th, 1868 the medical department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs had been directed the midwife Nadezhda Lebedeva for work in the Internal horde

In 1845 the Regulations about “Internal Kirghiz horde”: “the public hospital with 15 beds in which all Kirghiz will be free of charge “.

Preventive measures against drift and distributions of epidemic illnesses were carried out by medical workers of the Boundary commissions. In 1844 boundary commission consisted from one doctor, one medical assistant and 10 pupils - medical assistants from Kazakhs. Training of medical assistants was spent at the Orenburg military hospital.

One of the greatest disasters among Kazakhs was smallpox which was characterized by high death rate. The first convincing data about vaccination among Kazakhs concern to 1863 when it has been imparted against smallpox 221 people. Epidemics of natural smallpox, malaria, tuberculosis, syphilis were in 1874 in the Internal horde.

The next stage of development of medicine in Kazakhstan was connected with zemstvo medicine in Russia which was engaged in rendering of medical aid, mainly, to rural population. The zemstvo reform was a continuation of the 1861 reform which abolished serfdom in Russia. The zemstvo reform started in 1864; it was introduced zemstvos - new self-administration organs in the rural localities. The districts zemstvos started inviting doctors, tried to organize medical sanitary service.

Zemskaya medicine could not bring basic changes on surburbs of zhuz. After some times government was forced on improvement of medical service of rural population of Kazakhstan.

On May 29^th, 1897 the opinion of State Council “About reform of medical sector in the districts of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk and Semirechensk areas”. According to this document the health services to rural population should be lead by local principle for what districts shared on sectors with head - doctor.

Doctors repeatedly, but unsuccessfully brought an attention to the question on expansion and strengthening of medical institutions, however their offers, as a rule, deviated under various pretexts.

Doctors-Kazakhs got high medical education, and studied in Kazan, Moscow, Kiev, Tomsk, Saratov universities with support of the Kazakh societies.

A.D. Aitbakin (1859 - 1919) finished in 1894 medical faculty of Tomsk University. He organized the first medical ambulance station, the drugstore in village Katen-Karagay. He printed in the newspaper on Kazakh language with the purpose of propagation of medical knowledge. Last 2 years of his life he worked in Ust Kamenogorsk.

D.U. Kusyabgaliev (1870-1914) received a degree of the doctor with distinction. Since 1900 till 1928 he worked in the Ural area as manager of medical sector. In the thirtieth years he worked on different medical posts in Alma-Aty and Chimkent areas, rendered medical aid to the population, spent sanitary-epidemical actions.

N. Zhakupbayev (1890-1032) finished medical faculty of Kiev University with distinction in 1916. He worked in Semirechensk and Semipalatinsk areas, he took active participation in foundation of red medical jurt. He spent active work on training of the medical staff, participated in work of the First All-Russia congress of doctors in Moscow.

In 1902-1905 in Kazakhstan in connection with resettlement of Russian peasants there was origin migratory medical organization which was under central administrative board of land management and agriculture. Zemskaya medicine was in charge of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Such dissociation led to inconsistency of actions of medical workers that affected rendering of medical aid to the population.

The system of medical service was spent as dispersal; medical aid was on an outpatient basis. Thus, zemskaya medicine was introduced in Kazakhstan later than in other Russian provinces.

Development of medicine and public health in Kazakhstan

in the XX - XXI centuries
The decree from August, 26^th, 1920 had been organized Independent Kirghiz Socialist Soviet republic, this decree alongside with others narcoms (national commissariat) had been created national commissariat of public health. The first national commissar of public health was M.S.Shamov, his deputy was M.M. Chumbalov.

M.S. Shamov was born in Sevastopol in worker’s family. He finished medical faculty of Kharcov University in 1914, then he worked in Soviet army as a doctor till 1917. Since 1920 till 1928 he was commissar of public health services in Kazakhstan. He made greater work on teaching of the medical staff, especially from Kazakhs. Under his management in 1925 the first regional sanitary-bacteriological institute in Kazakhstan, medical assistant's schools in Orenburg and Uralsk have been created, short-term courses on teaching of medical nurses were organized.

M.M. Chumbalov (1873-1940) was born in Kaztolov district of Ural oblast. He finished medical faculty in Kazan in 1899. In the 1929-1938 he headed republican board of drug-stores and then he was head of anti plague station in Uralsk.

In an initial stage of public health becoming the greater help was rendered by the national commissariat of public health services of Russian federation to Kazakhstan. On struggle with infectious illnesses there were directed epidemiological groups and medical workers. In 1922 number of doctors was 247.

The important role in struggle with dangerous infections has played mobile medical and antiepidemical laboratories.

Alongside with development of a network of treatment-and-prophylactic institutions there were opened medical colleges in many towns of Kazakhstan.

There were opened republics scientific research institutes, dermato-venereologic scientific research institute in 1931, institute of protection of motherhood and childhood in 1932, Kazakh Scientific Research Institute (SRI) on tuberculosis, Scientific Research Institute (SRI) of public health services and hygiene.

In the beginning of the 30th years of XXc. it was created conditions for teaching of the national medical staff. Medical institute was opened in Alma-Ata in 1931. The first rector became S.D. Asfendiyarov.

S.D. Asfendiyarov (1889-1937) finished Petersburg military- medical academy in 1912. From 1928 he worked as a rector of Kazakh State University till 1937. He was illegally victimized in 1937 and 23 of February he was sentence to be shot. He had been rehabilitated in the 26 of May, 1937.

The next years: Karaganda state medical institute (1950), Semipalatinsk state medical institute (1953), Actubinsk state medical institute (1957), Tcelinograd state medical institute (1958), Chimkent state medical institute (1979) were organized for teaching of medical staff.

The public health service of Kazakhstan before Great Patriotic War has reached successes in health services of the population, in struggle with infectious diseases. On rates of growth bed networks in 1938 Kazakh SSR won the first place among union republics. The public health service of Kazakhstan has got stronger. In 1940 the sanitary-bacteriological institute has been transformed to institute of epidemiology and bacteriology.

Within Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), despite of greater difficulties which were tested with the country, the public health services and medical science continued to develop. Academy of sciences of Kazakh SSR has been created in the end of war. The institutes of medical structure - physiology, clinical and experimental surgery, regional pathology were attached to the Academy of sciences. Kazakh SRI on oncology and radiology was opened in 1960, Kazakh SRI on pediatrics in 1972, Institute of nourishment in 1974, Republic scientific research center of childhood and motherhood protection in 1975, SPI on cardiology in 1977.

Fundamental works of the Kazakhstan scientists are widely known not only in our country, but also abroad. These are researches on physiology and pathologies lymph and blood circulations (A.P.Polosuhin), epidemiology of cancer, endemic craw (A.N.Syzganov), epidemiology of brucellosis (I.K.Karakulov), infectious allergology (N.D.Beklemishev), functional morphology of vegetative nervous system (A.R.Rahishev), neurosisand its treatment (A.M.Svyadosch), diabetes, pulmonary edema (J.A.Lazaris, and I.A.Serebrovskaya), questions on abdominal and urgent surgery, angiosurgery (S.V.Lokhvitsky), hygiene of nourishments (T.Sh. Sharmanov) etc.

T.Sh. Sharmanov - graduator of Karaganda state medical institute (1955) became a minister of public health of Kazakh SSR (1971-1982). He is a doctor of medical science, professor, academician of Russian academy of medical science and national academy of science of the Republic of Kazakhstan. He is a president of Kazakh academy of nourishment. T.Sh. Sharmanov is a laureate of many prizes: State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan, independent prize “Platinum Tarlan” in science field, prize of WHO for contribution to world public health (2005).

The Republic of Kazakhstan in structure of the USSR adhered to principles of the Soviet model of public health services: state character, free, preventive direction, general availability, planned character, connection of science and practice. The country has achieved successes in decrease of many infectious diseases, prophylactic medical examination, training of experts, in the decision of problems of rural public health services.

Crisis of the Soviet system of public health services is consequence of crisis of the Soviet system of statehood. Developed command-administrative system suffered from bureaucratism, suppressed the initiative and creativity, activity was under construction without taking into account economic feasibility. Financing of the Soviet public health services was under construction by a residual principle. Sovereign republics of USSR, including Kazakhstan had the deformed parameters of health and public health services. So, number of doctors and sick-lists beds was the highest in the world, 143 doctors and 131 hospitals on 10.000 populations, but it was not accompanied by improvement of parameters of health of the population.

The 25^th of October, 1990 Supreme Soviet of Kazakh SSR signed the declaration about state sovereignty. In 1991, the 10^th of December the Kazakh SSR was renamed into Republic of Kazakhstan.

In 1992 Kazakhstan became independent and full member of World health organization and accepted state liability for appeal to all people “Health for all in XXI c.”(1998).

The modern period of development of the country is characterized by transformation of all sectors of public life and an economic mechanism of Kazakhstan; there were new requirements of perfection of system of public health services, public health care. Successful promotion in achievement of the purpose - "Health for all in XXI century" is directly depends on heads of the state that make political decisions on public health services in partnership with other public forces of the country and are guided by recommendations of WHO. For development and improvement of public health services the government, the international organizations should find not ordinary approaches with reorientation to a modern situation in the world, having directed the efforts to development of medicine and improvement of health in Kazakhstan.
Development of medicine in the Central Kazakhstan
The territory of modern Karaganda area was a part of Bayanaul, Akmolinsk and Karkaralinsk districts before revolution. Along border of districts there were first settlements - villages - Karkaralinsk (1824), Ulytau (1941), etc., populated mainly the Siberian Kazaks. In 1833 A. Baizhanov discovered Karaganda coals, in 1834 Russian merchant S.Popov discovered in Berkara (Karkaralinsk) - the first copper and silver - lead.

Malaria, returnable typhus, skin diseases, cholera, trachoma were wide spread in the Central Kazakhstan.

All medical aid was provided by the one medical sector with staff - the doctor, the medical assistant, the midwife. Medical aid was rendered by medical assistants, who finished Omsk College, in 1880 then have entered posts of volost medical assistant. They made simple surgical operations, accepted deliveries, treated teeth. They concerned to execution of their duties honesty.

One of the first doctors in territory of modern Karaganda area was G.Niyazbekov, he finished Omsk medical institute in 1900. He rendered the therapeutic and surgical aid, he was engaged in health protection of women and children, and distributed patients the medicines. The significant role belongs to the professional revolutionary and medical assistant I.V.Deyev - graduator of the Chita medical assistant's school. He was banished to Kazakhstan. He made prophylaxis of treatment tuberculosis, infectious disease and syphilis.

On May, 20^th, 1930 in the composition of explorer expedition generated in Moscow by K.O.Gorbachev (in the subsequent the first head of trust Karagandaugol) the first doctors G.N.Alalykin, Y.F.Alalykina, L.G.Livas arrived to Karaganda. The unique brick one-storied house of 6 rooms was a first-aid post. “The red hospital” – such it was called by people.

In the first day of opening of an ambulance station there were only 4 persons on reception, but soon there were greater turns. The ambulance station with three doctors existed almost year till April, 14^th, 1931, before arrival of new doctors. Karaganda got the status of city in 1934; there were 62 doctors, 338 middle medical workers, 8 hospitals with 652 beds, the polyclinic, 12 ambulance stations, and 8 health centers.

G.N.Alalykin played the great role in becoming of surgical service in Karaganda; within the Second World War he was the adviser of all evacuation hospitals of Karaganda. Y.F.Alalykina rendered the therapeutic help, accepted deliveries, and took sanitary-educational work.

In 1934 A.V.Timofeyevich and T.A.Kolomenskaja arrived from Russia to Karaganda. The traumatologist and the surgeon - they made a lot of for development of public health services in city. Miners tenderly named A.V.Timofeyevich as “Our miner's doctor”.

By the direction of narcomm (national commissariat) of public health of USSR the graduator of Kuban medical institute - P.M.Pospelov arrived to Karaganda in 1933.

Pospelov Peter Moiseyevich (1903 – 1985) was born in stanitsa Rasshevatka in Stavropol. He finished Kuban medical institute in 1929. He was manager of doctor sector in stanitsa Georgievskaya (1929 -1931). P.M. Pospelov was manager of therapeutic and infectious department in city hospital of Georgievsk.

Since 1933 more than 6 years he was the head physician and manager of hospital’s department of the second mine in Karaganda. In September, 1939 he has been appointed by manager of regional public health department.

He had dream about opening of high school in Karaganda, he could prove the necessity of institute’s opening and his dream became true in 1950. The first rector of Karaganda state medical institute was P.M. Pospelov.

He was given rank “Honored doctor of Republic” in 1943.

Being the rector of KSMI from 1950 till 1974, his life was devoted to the development of institute, the opening of faculties: medical, sanitary-hygienic, pediatrics, the construction of new buildings for study, rest and hostels. The institute had got first category in 1961.

He defended the thesis on theme “Industrial traumatism on Karaganda mines and its analysis for period of 1941-1950”. He was founder and head of department of social medicine since 1953 till 1984.

All his life he many researched on study of natural and healing resources of Central Kazakhstan. He developed sanitary-hygienic and balneotherapeutic characteristics of Karakaralinsk, it was opened recreation zones in Karakarlinsk, Topar, sanatoriums in Shalgie and Zhosaly.

He was awarded by Lenin’s orders, “Red Star”, “Honour sign”, and medals.

In his memory and respect P.M.Pospelov became freeman (honourable citizen) of Karaganda in 1973.

Since 1947 graduator of Alma-Ata state medical institute - H.D.Makazhanov (1915-1987) worked in Karaganda, within 25 years he was the main surgeon of oblast health department, since 1958 he was head of traumatology and orthopedics department of KSMI, he was the founder of school of traumatologists. One of city clinics has name by the professor H.D.Makazhanov.

Doctor of medical sciences, professor S.V.Lokhvitsky arrived in Karaganda in 1975. He had based large surgical school and created modern surgical clinic, there prepared 25 doctors and more than 100 candidates of medical sciences.

Favorable conditions of independent Kazakhstan gave possibilities to effective cooperation with foreign countries in the medicine and education.

Preparatory department for foreign citizens was founded in Karaganda State Medical Institute (1991). First students were 36 Syrians; they studied Russian and Kazakh language, chemistry, biology, mathematics, history of the Republic of Kazakhstan for further education in KSMI.

1993 was a year of opening of dean’s office on work with foreign citizens. Students were from Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, India, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia. Contingent of foreign students was extended; it was decided to open on base of dean’s office the department of international cooperation in 1998. Many students wanted to get knowledge in English and first English groups were organized in 2001. Nowadays foreign citizens can get higher education in three languages: Kazakh, Russian and English in Karaganda State Medical Academy.

The best traditions and creative atmosphere which was based by the founder of KSMI - P.M.Pospelov, are kept teachers of all generations and they impart it to their students. Government regulation of RK reorganized Karaganda State Medical Institute into Karaganda State Medical Academy in 1997.

People who betrayed to medicine, to their country play great role in development of public health services of Central Kazakhstan. They create history every day working in new modern clinics, the diagnostic center, in medical academy.