Lectures on history of medicine

BIBLIOGRAPHY

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   Аль - Фараби. Естественно - научные трактаты: Пер. с арабского. - Алма - Ата: Наука, 1987. - 496с.
   
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   Воскобойников В.М. Великий врачеватель. Авиценна: жизнеописание / В.М. Воскобойников. - 2-е изд. - М.: Мол.гвардия, 1980. - 206с.
   
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   История медицины / П.Е. Заблудовский, Г.Р. Крючок, М.К. Кузьмин, М.М. Левит. - М.: Медицина, 1987. - 352 с.
   
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   Кубесов А. Педагогическое наследие Аль – Фараби / А. Кубесов. - Алма - Ата: Мектеп, 1989. - 152с.
   

7. Лисицын Ю.П.История медицины / Ю.П. Лисицын. - М.: ГЭОТАР-МЕД, 2004. -393 с.

8. Ошанин Л.И. Талисман Авиценны: Роман в балладах / Л.И. Ошанин. -Ташкент: Литература и искусство, 1980.- 112с.

9. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб. заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия», 2005.-560с.

10. Ястребицкая А.Л. Западная Европа XI-XIII веков / А.Л. Ястребицкая. -М.: Ис­кусство, 1987.-176с.
5. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN CAPITALISM EPOCH IN WESTERN EUROPE. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA
5.1. Medicine development in Western Europe
Epoch’s characteristics

Historically in comparison with previous formations capitalist mode of production developed earlier in the countries of Western Europe, there were first bourgeois revolutions: the Netherlands (1566 - 1609), England (1640-1649), and France (1789 - 1794). Revolutions in England and France were revolutions of European scale and proclaimed victory of new social order. On level with precapitalist relations there was other: feudal, slave-owning and yet kin-tribal.

Decomposition of feudal and development of capitalistic relations first of all began in towns of Northern Italy, because of process of manufacturing origin and increase. They became to speak about diseases of workers in industry. This new question in medicine reflected in work of doctor from Padua B.Ramaccini (1633 - 1714) “About diseases of artisans”. Origin of industrial pathology marked the end of feudal medicine. From XVII – XVIIIc. culture, science and medicine had features reflecting social-economic formation. Feudal medicine and prevalence of religion stemmed the tide of natural science and medicine. But medical practice and natural scientific thought promoted medicine development in capitalistic society, in particular activity of scientist Hermann Boerhave (1668-1738), – teaching of student and observing of patients near their beds.

French materialism of XVIII c. and its role

in dissemination of materialistic conception of disease

Capitalistic production felt necessity in development of mechanics, physics and chemistry. Great influence upon their making had French materialism of XVIIIc. which played role in ideological preparation for Great French bourgeois revolution . Activities of doctors-materialists had big significance in medicine: A. Lerua (1598-1679), J. LaMetree (1709-1751) and P. Cabanisue (1757-1808). C. Marx wrote in his “Holy family” that doctor Lerua began this school, doctor Cabanisue – is climax, doctor La Metreue –is a centre of this school.

A. Lerua understood progressive discovery of Harvey and defended study about blood circulation. He published the book “Physics’ founding” in the Netherlands.

J. La Metreue was one of an instigator of French materialism. His main work was “Human being - machine” (1747), there he proclaimed study’s program of living processes by experimental ways. He fought for materialism and criticized idealistic systems of XVIII c.

P. Cabanisue was eminent figure of French bourgeois revolution, participant for reforming of hospital business and medical education in France. He paid attention on process’ study of human thinking. He considered that brain is special organ for thought’s production.
Great natural-scientific discoveries of

the second half of the ХVIII and the first half of the ХIХ centuries

Big significance for development of dialectic views on nature and medicine development had great natural-scientific discoveries of the second half of the ХVIII and the first half of the ХIХ c., among them F. Engels marked out 3 main discoveries: theory of cellular texture of living organisms, conservation of energy and doctrine of evolution.

Scientists of the first half of the ХIХ c. investigated microscopically texture of living organisms that promoted origin of teaching about cell.

Y. Purkyje (1787-1869) was founder of modern histology. He concluded about commonness of primitive component elements of animals and plants.

M. Shleiden and T. Shwann made generalization of research about texture of plant and animals and completion of new stage in development of cellular teaching. They were discoverers of the cell as the fundamental element of the body of plants and animals. They considered that cells of plant and animal descend from living, microscopically anhistous mass.

T. Shwann’s introduction of definition of cell as elementary particle, common for plant and animal organisms, was one from natural-scientific proofs of unity of living nature. But if all multicellular organisms – plants, animals, human grow from one cell according to the law of cell division, then whence are endless varieties of these organisms? Answer on this question gave third great discovery – theory of development, which was organically based by Ch. Darwin.

Second discovery was conservation of energy. Priority of discoveries of these nature laws belong to M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). He formulated the laws of conservation of matter and power. French chemist La Vuazeue (1743-1794), knew about Lomonosov’s work, and gave the same results in 1773 as M.V. Lomonosov. German scientist R. Mayer pointed out on connection between mechanical work and heat. Englishman Joule confirmed experimentally and determined mechanical heat equivalent. Thus, they discovered law of energy change. Laws of conservation of matter, conservation of energy promoted development of biology and medicine.

Question about origin of organic world interested human thought.

Ch. Darwin (1809-1882) opened the reasons of variety and unity of organic world, its adaptation to existing conditions in the XIX c. He created scientific, materialistic theory of volatility species and succession among them. Main regulations he said in book “About origin of species by natural selection, or preservation of species in struggle for life” (1859). Darwin‘s theory was a powerful incentive to progressive development of natural scientific thought.
Medicine development

The ХIХ c. was the period of consolidation and prosperity of capitalism for European countries.

The ХIХ c. was rich for medicine: it was created new methods, discoveries. Medicine was connected with natural science and techniques.

As the scientific founder of pathological anatomy was Giovanni Battista Morgagni (1682-1771).

He became a medicine doctor in 19 years old, 24 years old he was a head of anatomy department of Bologna University. From 1711 year he was head of practical medicine in Padua.

He published in 1761 six-volume research "De sedibus et causis morborum per anatomen indagatis" (“About location and causes of diseases, opening by dissection”), usually contains, besides the results of post-mortem examinations, a corresponding history of the diseases. He described in detail organ’s changes under the influence of diseases. Brining anatomy and clinical medicine he started clinical-anatomical principles and created first scientifically significance nosology. Hi was conferred on diploma of science academy in Berlin, Paris, London and Petersburg.

Important role in development of methods of physical research belong to Vienna doctor L. Auenbrugger (1722-1809).

In 1754, Leopold Auenbrugger developed a new technique of physical examination, which he called percussion. He tapped on the chest with the fingertips with the hand drawn closed, and noted of the sounds that were conveyed to identify a site of abnormality. He referred to these "percussed" sounds as either high pitched, muted or dull. Auenbrugger attributed his discovery to his boyhood experience watching his father tapping to define the level of fluid in kegs. He published his new technique and findings in a short monograph in 1761.

In 1761 he published work on Latin “New method: how by means of percussion of chest to discover latent diseases”. In spite of importance of this discovery, percussion shared fare of many great discoveries: it met with inimical. Doctors of Vienna had thought he was mad and he was victimized. L. Auenbrugger spent latest years of his life in mental hospital; there he died in 1809.

Percussion was not widely recognized until 1808, with the publication of Jean Nicholas Corvisart's translation of the Auenbrugger treatise. Corvisart annotated the text and turned a 49 page monograph into a 400 page book. Corvisart (1755-1821) - was a prominent physician, of Napoleon Bonaparte and the teacher of Laenneck. He was an adamant supporter of percussion and taught it to his students. He was an initiator of clinic medicine in France. He could promote to inculcation percussion as a diagnostic method.

Next important step in development of clinic medicine was opening of auscultation. This merit belonged to French doctor Rene Teophill Giacint Laenneck (1782-1826). He was pathologist, clinician and teacher in Medical school in Paris.

The origin of this idea occurred when Laenneck saw some young children playing near the Louvre listening to the ends of a long piece of wood that transmitted the sounds of pin scratches. The next day, he rolled up a piece of paper, tied it with a string, and listened to his patients' chests with it. Laenneck was a carpenter and then built a 25 cm by 2.5 cm hollow wooden cylinder which he also used to listen to the chest sounds of his patients. He later modified this cylinder to have detachable parts. He noted the various sounds that he heard and then correlated them to the anatomical findings at their autopsies. He also used a solid piece of wood to 'listen' to heart sounds. In February of 1818, he presented his findings in a talk at the Academy de Medicine, later publishing his findings in his work “About mediate auscultation”, 1819. Six years after he died from tuberculosis.

Quick development of natural science was on boundaries of ХVIII-ХIХc. French doctor K. Bish (1771-1802) developed Morgagni‘s position and he promoted to development of pathological anatomy in the first half of XIX c. Physiologists experimented on central nervous system during the XVII- XVIIIc.

Check scientist I. Prohaska published his work “About structure of nerves”, (1799) there he raised a question about functional significance of morphological distinction between ventral and dorsal roots of spinal nerve. Later English surgeon and physiologist Ch. Bell (1774-1842) started experimental study of distribution of sensory nerve fibers and motor fiber between ventral and dorsal roots of spinal nerve.

Further development of experimental line of investigation in physiology gave Fr. Majandi (1783-1855); he considered sole source of knowledge was experiment. He proved that ventral roots of spinal nerve were motor and dorsal roots of spinal nerve were sensory, receptor.

German scientist I. Muller (1801-1858) studied structure and functions of organs of vision, hearing, sound and speech in human and animals. He traced development of nervous system in different animals, studied blood, lymph compositions and glands structure.

C. Bernard (1813-1873) in the middle of XIX c. posed a problem to create experimental medicine connecting physiology, pathology and therapy. His works about sugar exchange in organism and liver functions got maximum fame.

German naturalist, doctor, physiologist and physician G. Gelmgholcz (1821-1894) first gave mathematic interpretation of conservation of energy in 1847.

Idealistic views of I. Muller, C. Bernard and their many followers conditioned Western Europe physiology limitation in a number of main cases and hampered the development of biology, physiology, experimental pathology and clinical medicine.

The important discoveries in microbiology connected with name of French scientist, chemist and microbiologist l. Pasteur (1822-1895).

All history of microbiology divides into 2 periods: before Pasteur (empiric) and after Pasteur (experimental). In the early XIX c. many scientists believed in spontaneous generation i.e. that some living things spontaneously grew from non-living matter, before discovery of Pasteur. Nevertheless, as said R. Boil in XVIIc. who comprehends the nature of contagious diseases who can explain the nature of fermentation.

This scientist became L. Pasteur. Pasteur proved that microscopic organisms caused disease. His main discoveries are enzymatic nature of lactic (acid) fermentation (1857), alcoholic fermentation(1860) and butyric fermentation (1861); study diseases of vine and beer (from 1857), disproof of hypothesis of spontaneous origin (1860), research of diseases of silkworms(1865), bases of concepts of artificial immunity (1880), anthrax vaccine (1881). Then, in 1885, Pasteur successfully used the vaccine on a boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog.

Pasteur also invented a way of sterilising liquids by heating them (called pasteurisation). It was first used for wine (in 1864) and later for milk.

Significance of those discoveries was great for French economics, but L. Pasteur was generally recognized only to the end of his life. His discoveries were bases for microbiology development and struggle with infectious diseases. He organized first antirabic station in Paris in 1885.

Big significance for microbiology development had discoveries of German doctor, the Nobel Prize laureate of 1905y. R. Koch (1843-1910). He determined etiology of anthrax (1876), opened pathogens of tuberculosis (1882) and cholera (1883).

Microbiology got wide development in many countries, from the end of 70- beginning of 90 years of XIXc. were opened pathogens of many infectious diseases. This period has name of bacteriological epoch.

In 1865 Joseph Lister (1827-1912) discovered antiseptic surgery, which enabled surgeons to perform many more complicated operations. He had precursors: N.I. Pirogov used spirit and tincture of iodine for disinfection, Hungarian obstetrician I.F. Semmelweiss used chloral water for hand disinfection.

Lister atomized grout of carbolic acid in the air before and during the operation. His method reduced postoperative complications and mortality in several times. German surgeons developed a better method.

Method of antiseptic was added method of asepsis in the end of XIXc. Founders of asepsis were German surgeons E. Bergmann (1836-1907) and his follower K. Shimmelbush. The surgeons’ hands and clothes were sterilized before the operation and surgical instruments were sterilized with super heated steam. They first reported about method of asepsis in 1890 on International doctors’ congress in Berlin. Rubber gloves were first used in surgery in 1890.

A new epoch of progress begins in 1846 with the introduction of narcosis. The discoverer of the narcotic effect of ether is the American physician and chemist, Charles Jackson (1805-80), who together with dentist William Morton (1819-1868), made experiments upon his own person. The first narcosis was undertaken in 1846 by Warren, and in the same year in London by Robert Liston. G. Warren eliminated neck tumor under ether anesthetic.

N.I.Pirogov for the first time used ether anesthetic in field conditions in summer of 1847. T.Billroth (1829 - 1894) first carried out successful partial gastrectomy in 1881, 1892- esophagectomy, 1893- larynx resection.

T. Cokher (1841 - 1917) – was a follower of T. Billroth and B. Langenbeck, he was awarded to Nobel Prize for work in physiology, pathology and surgery of thyroid gland. He made his contribution to development of abdominal surgery, traumatology and military-field therapy.

Era of antiseptic and aseptic became wide perspectives for emergency surgery. There were first operations on appendectomy in German and England in 1884. Narcosis and antiseptics now make possible a series of daring operations, before impossible, with essentially better chances of success. There were used instrumental methods for checkup and treatment in surgical clinics.

Founder of experimental hygiene was German doctor M. Petencoffer (1818 - 1901). He opened department of experimental hygiene in Munchen University in 1865. He contrived method in the field of home hygiene, which one called by his name.

On the whole, medicine in the beginning of XX c. was enriched by natural science progresses. V.K. Roentgen opened radiation in 1895; it enlarged ability of sick person examination and started new medical discipline – radiology.

Scientific substantiation of theory of evolution was opening law heredity by Czech naturalist G. Mendel. His role was recognized in 1900, then C. de Fries (Holland), C. Corrence (Germany) and A. Chermack (Austria) almost reopened simultaneously laws of Mendel and experimentally proved his conclusions. From this time experimental genetics had begun, it is science about heredity and mobility of organisms. Important stage in genetics development was creation of chromosome theory of heredity in 1911 (G. Morgan, C. Bridges, Ck. Muller). From that moment fundamental genetic theory became materialistic conception of gene. The XX c. became the period of rapid development of genetics and on its base - molecular genetics and molecular biology.

The Nobel Prize laureates in medicine were R. Ross for study malaria (1902) and A. Lavern for malaria pathogen (1907), R. Koch - for tuberculosis pathogen (1905), I.I. Mechnicov and P. Erlikh for working up immunity theory (1908); G. Dogmack substantiated the use of sulfanilamide’s for treatment of bacteritic infections in 1939; A. Fleming got penicillin and used it in doctor’s practice in 1945.

5.2. Medicine development in Russia

Epoch’s characteristics
Russia was feudal –serf country in the end of XVII – the beginning of XVIII c. capitalistic relations just began to engender. Thanks to efforts of Peter I the Great (1672-1725) Russia became powerful land and sea country.

Genius Russian scientists – M.V. Lomonosov was the head of struggle for independent development of native science. His views were philosophic and natural-scientific base for development of natural science and medicine.

The period from the end of XVIII - to the middle of XIX c. was decomposition of serfdom and accelerated forming of capitalistic relations.

Tsarist government climbed to save and secure serfdom, it carried out a reactionary internal and foreign policy, but scientific ideas was developed and achieved big successes in Russia of the first half of XIX c.

Russian medical doctors with university degrees appeared only in the XVIII c. after the politics of westernization by Peter I.

Russian doctors and medical students took part in the liberation movement of 60-70 years. Social medicine was origin and developed in that period under the influence of revolutionary enthusiasm. The process of differentiation of medical disciplines considerably precipitated.

Reorganization of public health authority
Betterment of medical business management in Russia began from 1716, and when Pharmaceutical Board was subordinated to archiyatr. At the suggestion of archiyatr I.L. Blumentrost Pharmaceutical Board and chancellery were reorganized to Medical chancellery. In 1763 it was transformed to Medical Board. In 1804 medicine management was passed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs there Medical Council had questions on medical science. Military-medical institutions were under the jurisdiction of Military and Sea Ministry. Public medicine in Russia of XVIII c. had bureaucratic features.
Medicine development of Russia in the XVIII century
First hospital school was opened in 1707 under the jurisdiction of land hospital. Holland doctor N.L. Bidloo was the head of this school. Later hospital schools were opened in Petersburg, Cronshdatd, Kiev and other towns. In 1786 Hospital schools were reorganized to medical-surgical schools (colleges). In 1725 Medical-surgical academy of science was opened in Petersburg. In 1755 was opened Moscow University and under its jurisdiction the medical faculty in 1764.

There were medical institutions in Russia among them: monastic, public, military (land and sea) hospitals, founding hospital with obstetric institutions, variolous houses, and chemist’s shops. It was begun accounting of birth rate and mortality, decrees about improvement of Moscow, cleansing of settlements, foodstuffs were under surveillance in markets.

Russian doctors began to use new methods of examinations: percussion, auscultation.

Prominent scientists- doctors in Russia of XVIII c.:

P.Z. Condoidi (1710 -1760) was a prominent manager in Russian medical business. His name was connected with first medical library (1756).

A.P. Protasov (1724-1796) was a first Russian professor – anatomist, physiologist, and academician of Petersburg academy of science, one of the first initiator of Russian anatomic terminology.

C.I. Schepin (1728-1770) - first Russian teacher in Moscow hospital school.

S.G. Zybelin (1735-1802) - first student of Moscow University and first professor of medical faculty of this University. First clinician, first hygienist, first pediatrician.

D.S. Samoilovich (1744-1805) - founder of domestic epidemiology. He paid attention on teaching of medical personnel.

N.M. Maximovich –Ambodic (1744-1812). He was one of first initiator of Russian obstetrics, pediatrics and pharmacognosy. He published first original Russian manual “Art of midwife’s business or science about womanish business”.

A.M. Shumlyansky (1748-1795) had great place in histology. In his work “About kidneys” (Strasburgh, 1782) he described peculiarities of kidneys structure.
Medicine development of Russia in the XIX century
The time from the end of XVIIIc. to the middle of XIXc. – was time of serfdom’s decomposition and accelerated forming of capitalistic relations. Russian czarism played role of “zhandarm of Europe” on international arena.

Philosophical views of V.G. Belinskii, A.I. Gerczen, decembrists and materialistic views of Radischev A.N. (1749-1802) had influence on medicine development. Radischev A.N. was a writer, revolutionist.

Raise of Russian patriotic and medicine development were during the patriotic war of 1812.

Basic features of medicine development of the first half of XIX c. :

• 
  opening of new universities with medial faculties in Derpt (Yuriev, 1802), Vilna (1803), Kazan (1804), Charckov (1805), Kiev (1833);
  
• 
  formation of two main centers of medical science- medical surgical academy and medical faculty in Moscow University, preparation of native text-books and manuals, origin of first science medical school;
  
• 
  first Russian anatomical school, its founder Zagorsky (1764-1846). His work “Short anatomy”(1802) – was a top of pedagogical activity in anatomy;
  
• 
  first surgical school of I.F. Bush (1771-1843), his work “Manual for teaching surgery” (1807) in 3 volumes, was the original Russian text book on surgery.
  

Prominent scientists- doctors:

E.O. Mukhin (1766-1850) was anatomist and physiologist, hygienist and judicial doctor. He contributed to Russian anatomical nomenclature. His works: “The beginning of science of bonesetter” (1806), “Description of surgical operations” (1807), Manual on anatomy in 8 volumes (1818).

I. V. Buyalsky (1789-1866) was world known great anatomist and surgeon. He developed many new surgical operations and created new surgical tools. First in Russia he made bandage of nameless arteries.

M.Y. Mudrov (1776-1831) was a founder of native clinical teaching and clinical therapy. He followed the Hippocratic credo "to treat not a disease but a patient". His working out of inquire methods of sick person, schemes of writing of case records. He contributed into medical hygiene.

I.E. Dyadkovskii (1784-1841) was a prominent therapeutics – clinicist, pathologist – thinker. Main method of cognition was experience, observation and common sense.

N.I. Pirogov (1810-1881) – founder of topographical and surgical anatomy, military-field surgery, anatomical- physiological approach in surgery. He reformed in organization of surgical departments (division into “clean” and “purulent” departments), consummation of antiseptics, working out of teaching about prophylaxis of surgical infections. He in fact created a new medical science, field surgery, and suggested new, rational principles for the grouping, distribution and evacuation of the wounded. His, work, "Fundamentals of Field Surgery" (1864), had soon become a reference book for field surgeons in all countries. He paid attention on hygiene as a science which can help to save humanity from diseases. He considered that future belong to preventive medicine.

It was founded society of Russian doctors in 1892 in memory of Pirogov. Russian doctor’s society met on conference by the name of Pirogov till 1918. And only in 1995 this tradition reactivates.

Prominent representatives of clinical medicine in Russia of second half of XIXc.: S.P. Botckin (1832-1889), G. A. Zakharian (1829-1897), А. А. Ostroumov (1844-1908) – founders of clinical schools .

S.P. Botckin (1832-1889), was a founder of the biggest scientific therapeutic school in Russia. He developed clinical experimental direction in medicine. He opened first laboratory of experimental medicine in Russia, and first discovered nature of catarrhal jaundice (co-called “Botckin’s disease”, 1866) he was great teacher, during his 28 professor’s activity he had 106 residents among them 87 persons became doctors and 45 – professors of high school.

G.A. Zakharian (1829-1897) was a founder of big clinical school. He developed original method of anamnesis – questions to patient. He described zones of perception disorders at the internal diseases; these zones had got name “zones of Zakcharian - Ged”. He got fame of the best doctor; his “Clinical lectures” became classical and was republished many times.

A.A. Ostroumov (1845-1908) – representative of Russian clinical medicine of second half of XIXc. In his lectures he spoke about synthesis of treatment and prophylactic medicine.

Independent direction of medicine became pediatrics in second half of XIX – beginning of XX c. First lecturer was S.F. Khotoviscky (1796-1885), he wrote “Pediatrics” in 1847. He gave prove to existence of pediatrics as independent discipline, he described anatomical-physiological peculiarities of children organisms, diseases of any ages, etc.

First department on pediatrics was opened in Petersburg medical-surgical academy in 1870-1876. Its founder N.I. Bystrov (1841-1906) developed first program of teaching pediatrics, such as questions on hygiene, physical culture and treatment management.

In 1897 professor of department was N.P. Gundobin (1860-1908). His works “General and particular therapy of childhood” (1896) and “Peculiarities of childhood” (1906) became standard in world and native medicine.

In 1888 pediatrics department was opened in Moscow University. Since 1891 head of department was N.F. Filatov (1847-1902). He described chickenpox (1872), rubeola scarlatinosa (1885), early symptom of measles.

Development of native physiology is connected with activities of I.M. Sechenov (1829-1905), his researches: physiology of higher nervous activity and labor physiology. He was known as the Father of Russian physiology. He introduced electrophysiology into laboratories and also into teaching. His life work was always concentrated on neurophysiology. He wrote a major classic “The Reflexes of the Brain” (1863). He also maintained that physiochemical factors in the environment of the cell are of equal if not greater importance. He will also be remembered for his intellect and his knowledge, as well as for his scientific achievements. He founded physiological school of Russia; his successor was N.I. Wedensky (1852-1922). Wedensky introduced notion about lability and created study of parabiosis in his work “Excitation, slowdown, narcosis” (1907).

Ideas of Sechenov were continued by Great Russian scientist I. P. Pavlov.

I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936) – founder of first-rate physiological school and opening of method of conditioned reflex.

Pavlov's main area of research throughout his scientific career was on the digestive process, which brought on a series of experiments exploring the correlation between the nervous system and the autonomic functions of the body.  Pavlov experimented with dogs, studying the relationship between salivation and digestion. By applying stimuli to the animals in a variety of ways, using sound, visual, and tactile stimulation, he was able to make the animals salivate whether they were in the presence of food or not; a phenomenon he called the conditioned reflex (1901).

Pavlov was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1901. His famous work “Lecture about work of main digestive glands“(1897), for this work he was awarded by Nobel Prize in 1904. He was also elected Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1907, given an honorary doctorate at Cambridge University in 1912, and awarded the Order of the Legion of Honour in 1915, the recommendation of the Medical Academy of Paris. Pavlov‘s works on study high nervous activity showed that conditioned reflex produced in cortex of big cerebral hemispheres – the great achievement of XX c.

He wrote “Letter to youth” (1935) as testament to young people who devoted themselves to science.

Second half of XIX c. was marked by development of new branch – bacteriology (latest it became microbiology). Prominent scientists I. I. Mechnicov (1845-1916) - biologist, pathologist, immunologist and bacteriologist, founder phagocytes theory, he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1908y.; Gabrichevsky (1860-1907) – founder of first course on microbiology in Moscow University (1892), organizer of antidiphtheric serum ‘s production in Moscow;; D. K. Zabolotny (1866-1929) – initiator of epidemiology(1922), he organized Institute of epidemiology and microbiology in Ukraine N.F.; Gamaleya (1859-1949) – founder of bacteriological station (Odessa, 1896), initiator of prophylaxis hydrophobia, cholera, smallpox, plague and typhus.

Many great scientists made their contribution into development of native and world science. Important meaning had works of scientists in study of infectious pathogen, etc.

Economical and social progresses made for separation and development hygiene as independent science. First hygienic schools were schools of А. P. Dobroslavin, F.F. Erisman.

First professor on hygiene was А. P. Dobroslavin (1842-1889). He was the author of first text books on hygiene: “Hygiene. Course of public health” (1882-1884) and “Military hygiene” (1885-1887). By his initiative it was founded “Russian society of public health protection” and popular magazine “Health” in 1878.

F.F.Erisman (1842-1915) was an outstanding Russian hygienist, one of the founders of scientific hygiene in Russia, an active figure of public medicine. He paid great attention on school hygiene and hygiene of living premises, fought for improvement of sewerage system and for “proper organization of sanitary conditions in Russia”.

In 1881 F.F.Erisman was elected professor of Moscow University, and in 1882 headed department of hygiene – the first in Moscow and the second in Russia. His lectures and research papers and books exhibited a wide social approach to solution of medical problems.

Second half of XIXc. was marked by great achievements of Russian medicine. Sanitary development in physiology, microbiology, experimental hygiene and practical medicine determined the perspectives of improvement medical – sanitary legislation in Russia.