Lecture 2 translation history in the west and in the east. Plan: translation history in the west

Translation in the XX-XXI centuries
In the XX century many books have been written on the theory of translation. In the XX century Peter Newmark has made an important contribution to the translation theory. He wrote his book «Approaches to translation» and tried to work out the real nature of the translation. He taught translation techniques in Polytechnic University of London. Newmark's major contribution is a detail treatment of semantic and communicative translation.
He wrote that communicative translation focuses primarily upon the semantic content of the source text, comprehension and response of receptors. P. Newmark tried to give the theory of the proper names and titles. He says translation is a craft consisting the attempt to replace a written message and statement in one language by the same message and statement in another language. Newmark wrote his book «A textbook of translation» and his aim in this book was to offer a course of translation.
One of the best translators of the XX century was Alan Duff. Another famous translator in Great Britain was Alan Malley. A. Duff and A. Malley write that the translation is the process of message across linguistic and cultural barriers.
The English translators made a great contribution to the development of translation and they tried to represent the Uzbek writers' and poets' works in the English language.
In 1909 Talbot made a new translation of «Boburnoma». Orientalists Anetta and Henry Beverages tried to translate «Boburnoma» again at the beginning of the XX century.
The linguists Shwetzer A. D., Barhudarov L.B., Komissarov and others made a great contribution to the development of the translation in the XX century. They tried to create the linguistic theory of translation. Shwetzer A. D. in his book «Translation and linguistics» attempted to acquaint with the main theoretical patterns of the translation and their implementation in the process of translation of newspaper material.
L.S. Barhudarov devoted his book to the semantic problems of translation. Levitskaya and Fitterman in their book «Problems of translation» tried to reveal the ways of translation of English specific features which cause difficulty in translation from English into Russian such as passive constructions, homonymic forms, conversion and stylistic methods. They tried to work out the methods of translation to show national properties of English and Russian languages. The authors gave grammatical transformation in translation. The translation of emotionally coloured words is described very well.
The crucial problem of translation is given by Fedorov in is book «The basis of translation theory». Fedorov stresses that translation theory is an independent linguistic discipline deriving from observations and providing the basis for practice like the Leipzig school he believes that all experience is translatable and rejects the view that language expresses a peculiar mental word picture.
Komissarov in his book («The translation word» М. 1973) sees translation theory moving in three directions: the denotative (information-translation), the semantic (precise-equivalence) and the transformational (transposition of relevant structures). His theory of equivalence distinguishes five levels: lexical units, collocations, information, situation, and communication.
Questions

1. 
   How translation studies transferred into the new century?
   
2. 
   What changes can be found in translation of the XX and XXI centuries?
   
3. 
   Why is translation theory spread so fast among the scientists of the XX century?
   
4. 
   Why Nida, Newmark and Catford were against the word for word translation?