Languages for intercultural communication and education


Devising Larger-scale Ethnographic Projects



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Devising Larger-scale Ethnographic Projects
An increasing volume of literature on the intercultural approach (e.g.
Barro
et al
., 1998; Roberts
et al
., 2001) encourages learners to undertake
larger-scale ethnographic projects, preferably as part of a visit to the target
culture. Damen (1987) advises teachers to undertake a more extended
ethnographic project, although she is as hesitant as Roberts
et al
. (1992) to
identify classroom ethnography with the kind of research outlined earlier
in this chapter. Damen calls such projects ‘pragmatic ethnography’, noting:
This designation has been chosen in order to remind all of us that the
procedures used are to serve personal and practical purposes and not
to provide scientific data and theory. (Damen, 1987: 63)
Although pragmatic ethnography is not scientific, it is systematic, and
Damen suggests seven steps towards an individual ethnographic project
for teachers (1987: 64–9). These are summarised, with some minor adapta-
tions, below:
(1) Choose a target group
(2) Choose informant(s) able to represent this group
(3) Do library research on the group, if possible
(4) Interview the informant(s), remembering:
(a) not to identify the informant by name unless you have his/her
permission;
(b) do not make evaluative comments during the interview. The
informant’s views should be elicited, not judged;
(c) request permission to make notes or to record the interview in
some other way.
(5) Analyse the data and form a cultural hypothesis.
(6)
Reflect upon your own frames of reference; and seek to understand
the limitations of the evidence used to make the hypothesis formed
in (5).
(7) Use the insights from your research to inform your teaching
materials.
Ethnographic Approaches to Culture and Language
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For example, a project might look at the experience of schoolchildren in the
culture under consideration. Available informants would have to be
chosen. Is it possible for the teacher to visit a school in the target
community? If not, is there anyone within the target community accessible
by mail or email? Would an expatriate, native-speaker colleague or
acquaintance be appropriate as an informant? Background research on the
education system in the target culture would be used to devise interview
questions – teachers might seek educational documents or newspaper
reports, or (if they have access) seek out relevant documents on the World
Wide Web.
The interview stage is an important one, and the questions to be asked
should balance general and more specific information. Interviews can be
analysed for content, but the discourse structure of the interview can also
be analysed to reveal cultural presuppositions (see further, Chapter 6). Step
6 is a necessary corrective to the researcher’s over-enthusiasm. It explores
the limitations of the investigative process by considering first what the
interview has shown about the cultural presuppositions of the interview-
ers. Their frame of reference should be clear from the very topics they
have chosen to dwell on – say, forms of school discipline, the goals of the
English curriculum, or even whether or not pupils wear uniforms. The
reliability of the informant(s) should also be reconsidered. For example,
how much can an informant who is an expatriate teacher, perhaps
educated at a comprehensive school in Scotland in the 1970s, tell us about
British education as whole today? Scotland and England have long had
separate educational systems, and since the establishment of a devolved
parliament in Scotland in the late 1990s, the Scottish system has
developed under the governance of the Scottish Executive. To make gener-
alisations about ‘British’ education, then, the researcher would require a
number of informants from different parts of the UK, who might have very
different experiences of education, both state and private.
The seventh step is one in which Damen suggests that teachers use their
ethnographic investigations to help select, and supplement, their course
materials. Another possibility, obviously, is to use these guidelines to
structure learners’ own ethnographic investigations. More support would
need to be given to learners at different stages, for example, the back-
ground reading might be partly pre-selected by the teacher, and learners
might be prepared for interviewing by role-plays in which they have to
formulate questions, ask for clarification, and express interest without
being judgemental. Instead of step seven, the learners can present and
discuss their findings in the classroom, and the learners’ reports can inform
further debates and topics on related issues, such as means of enforcing dis-
cipline in school.
114

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