(Figure 7.1) clearly has a left-right organisation. The image of the child on
the left provides a context for the verbal text on the right: we therefore
interpret this billboard as the child asking a question. The Maluf billboard,
on the other hand, begins with text: ‘Ele faz’ (‘He gets it done’). The obvious
question is: ‘Who are we talking about?’ and the succeeding image of
Maluf, and the text which follows the image, provide the new information,
the answer to our question.
The final general distinction, top/bottom, conventionally expresses a
sense of the ideal versus the real. Kress and van Leeuwen trace this division
back to mediaeval religious art, where heaven, or paradise, is placed at the
top of the picture, while earth (or hell) is placed below. A later, 15th century
print that falls into this tradition is Albrecht Dürer’s ‘The Four Horsemen of
the Apocalypse: Revelation of St John the Divine’ (Figure 7.3). The woodcut
shows four bringers of destruction, with the Grim Reaper on the left, then a
strongly central Famine beside War, with Death on the far right, shooting
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Intercultural Approaches to ELT
Figure 7.3
‘The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse’
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an arrow. Above them all flies an angel, and below them poor sinners are
swallowed up by the mouth of hell. The concept of ‘up-ness’ retains strong
positive associations in Western culture, while being ‘down’ is still
generally construed as negative. This dichotomy is even evident in idioms
such as ‘I’m feeling up today’ versus ‘I’m feeling really down’. Similarly, in
pictures, what is positioned towards the top of the frame is considered to be
the ideal, while what is positioned towards the bottom has a more realistic,
or sometimes a negative connotation.
To summarise what has been said so far, the single image can be divided
into the areas shown in Figure 7.4, each with its own meaning in relation to
the others.
Within the image, certain features can be singled out for special
attention. Elements in the foreground are nearer us, and therefore more
eye-catching, than elements in the background. The relative sizes of
elements signify their importance. They may be divided by a strong
framing device – a shadow, a wall or some other feature that effectively
puts them in ‘separate boxes’. Alternatively, elements may be grouped
together in equal sizes, at an equal distance, without frames, symbolising
their communal identity. The four horsemen in Figure 7.3 overlap, and we
view them as a single unit, charging from left to right, their eyes fixed on a
goal that we cannot see.
Developing Visual Literacy
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