International Marketing in Germany – From a cultural perspective

Figure 2.7 The Manifestations of Culture – The Cultural Onion
Source: Trompenaars, F., 
Riding the Waves of Culture
, (1998), p. 22 (modified) 
Universalism versus Particularism 
One of Trompenaars’ value dimensions that describes culture measures human behavior in the 
frame of universalism versus particularism. The universalistic person always tries to do the 
right thing, not depending on the situation.
96
The particularistic person always fits his action to 
the situation. Each circumstance is valued and afterwards a decision is taken. Cultures with 
typical universalistic point of views are the United States, Sweden and Germany while Russia, 
China and Venezuela are particularistic countries. Typical universalistic characteristics are to 
focus more on rules than on relationships, a deal is a deal. Legal contracts are drawn up 
clearly, and a trustworthy person is someone who honors the contract and what has been 
said.
97
Individualism versus Communitarianism
Trompenaars’ second value dimension that describes culture deals with human individualism 
versus communitarianism. Individualism can be explained as when the individual identifies 
himself as an individual putting himself in the first room. Communitarianism can be described 
95
Trompenaars, A. & Hampden-Turner, C
., Riding the Waves of Culture, 
 (
1998), p. 6 
96
Johansson, J., 
Global Marketing,
(2003)
, 
p. 79 
97
Trompenaars, A. & Hampden-Turner, C.,
 Riding the Waves of Culture,
(1998),, p. 48 

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by when individuals see themselves as parts of a bigger group. Typical individualistic 
countries are the United States, Romania, the Czech Republic, Nigeria or Israel and typical 
communitarian countries are Japan, India, Egypt or Mexico.
98
This dimension can be directly 
compared to Hofstede’s individualism versus collectivism
99