Siderman
v.
Republic of Argentina
965 F.2d 699 (1992); 103 ILR, p. 454.
14
488 F.Supp. 665 (1980); 63 ILR, p. 378. Note that the US Court of Appeals has held that
the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act 1976 does not supersede the act of state doctrine:
see
Helen Liu
v.
Republic of China
29 ILM, 1990, p. 192.
i m m u n i t i e s f r o m j u r i s d i c t i o n
701
the assassination of Letelier in the US, such acts could not be the subject
of discussion in the US courts as the orders had been given in Chile. This
was not accepted by the Court since to do otherwise would mean emas-
culating the Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act by permitting a state to
bring back the absolute immunity approach ‘under the guise of the act of
state doctrine’.
15
In somewhat different circumstances, Kerr LJ signalled
his concern in
Maclaine Watson
v.
The International Tin Council
16
that the
doctrine of non-justiciability might be utilised to bypass the absence of
sovereign immunity with regard to a state’s commercial activities.
Of course, once a court has determined that the relevant sovereign im-
munity legislation permits it to hear the case, it may still face the act of state
argument. Such legislation implementing the restrictive immunity ap-
proach does not supplant the doctrine of act of state or non-justiciability,
17
although by accepting that the situation is such that immunity does not
apply the scope for the non-justiciability plea is clearly much reduced.
18
The absolute immunity approach
The relatively uncomplicated role of the sovereign and of government in
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries logically gave rise to the concept
of absolute immunity, whereby the sovereign was completely immune
from foreign jurisdiction in all cases regardless of circumstances. How-
ever, the unparalleled growth in the activities of the state, especially with
regard to commercial matters, has led to problems and in most coun-
tries to a modification of the above rule. The number of governmental
agencies and public corporations, nationalised industries and other state
organs created a reaction against the concept of absolute immunity, partly
because it would enable state enterprises to have an advantage over pri-
vate companies. Accordingly many states began to adhere to the doctrine
of restrictive immunity, under which immunity was available as regards
governmental activity, but not where the state was engaging in commer-
cial activity. Governmental acts with regard to which immunity would
be granted are termed acts
jure imperii
, while those relating to private or
trade activity are termed acts
jure gestionis.
15
488 F.Supp. 665, 674.
16
[1988] 3 WLR 1169, 1188; 80 ILR, pp. 191, 209.
17
See
International Association of Machinists & Aerospace Workers
v.
OPEC
649 F.2d 1354,
1359–60; 66 ILR, pp. 413, 418. See also
Liu
v.
Republic of China
29 ILM, 1990, pp. 192, 205.
18
See the interesting discussion of the relationship between non-justiciability and immunity
by Evans J in
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group
v.
Commonwealth of Australia
,
1989, transcript, pp. 59–60.
702
i n t e r nat i o na l l aw
The leading practitioner of the absolute immunity approach has been
the United Kingdom, and this position was established in a number of
important cases.
19
In the
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