Ibid.
47
Op cit,
Saland, note 14, pp 207–08.
48
Although under traditional English law, duress may never excuse the killing of an innocent person.
See
R v Howe
[1987] 1 AC 417 and
Abbott v R
[1977] AC 755.
49
Op cit,
Saland, note 14, p 208.
International Criminal Law
136
Sub-paragraph (d) offers a definition of an offence caused as a result of duress,
where this ‘result[s] from a threat of imminent death or of continuing or imminent
serious bodily harm against that person or another person’. According to this
provision, a person is exculpated from the underlying offence where: (a) the threat
is not brought about by actions attributed to the accused, but by other persons, or as
a result of circumstances beyond the control of the accused (necessity); (b) the accused
has taken all necessary and reasonable action to avoid this threat; and (c) the accused
does not intend to cause a greater harm than the one sought to be avoided. The ICTY
Trial Chamber in the
Erdemovic
case confirmed the conclusion of the post-Second
World War War Crimes Commission that duress constitutes a complete defence
subject to the aforementioned conditions.
50
In fact, the ICTY recognised that one of
the essential elements of the post-war jurisprudence was the ‘absence or not of moral
choice’. In the face of imminent physical danger, a soldier may be considered as
being deprived of his moral choice, as long as this physical threat (of death or serious
bodily harm) is clear and present, or else imminent, real and inevitable.
51
The ad hoc
tribunal, moreover, spelled out certain criteria which are to be used by the court in
order to conclude whether or not moral choice was in fact available. These are the
voluntary participation of the accused in the overall criminal operation, and the
rank held by the person giving the order as well as that of the accused, which includes
the existence or not of a duty to obey in a particular situation.
52
Cassese J has convincingly argued that since law is based on what society can
reasonably expect of its members, it ‘should not set intractable standards of behaviour
which require mankind to perform acts of martyrdom, and brand as criminal
behaviour falling below these standards’.
53
This philosophical approach to duress
merits consideration because of its practical implications. In the
Erdemovic
Appeals
Decision, the Chamber while agreeing that no special rule of international law existed
regulating duress where the underlying crime was the taking of human life, its
members strongly disagreed on whether the general rule on duress should apply or
whether some other domestic principle should be introduced. Judges McDonald
and Vohrah unsuccessfully argued that in the absence of a special rule on duress,
common law (as it turned out) was applicable, concluding thus that duress does not
afford a complete defence to homicides. Cassese and Stephen JJ made the case that
the general rule applies, which based on a case-to-case examination does afford a
defence. The dissenting opinion of Cassese J that the general international law rule
on duress be applied
54
was not only internationally respected but moreover
influenced ICC developments. One of the essential elements in a successful plea of
duress is that of proportionality (doing that which is the lesser of two evils). In
practical terms this will be the hardest to satisfy, the burden of proof being on the
accused, and may never be satisfied where the accused is saving his own life at the
50
Prosecutor v Erdemovic,
Sentencing Judgment (29 November 1996), para 17. These were identified in
the
Trial of Krupp and Eleven Others,
10 LRTWC (1949), 147.
51
Ibid,
para 18, citing post-Second World War case law.
52
Ibid,
paras 18–19.
53
Erdemovic
case, Appeals Chamber Decision (7 October 1997), Dissenting Opinion of Judge Cassese,
para 47.
54
Ibid,
paras 12, 40.
Chapter 6: Defences in International Criminal Law
137
expense of his victim. Conversely, where the choice is not a direct one between the
life of the accused and that of his victim, but where there is high probability that the
person under duress will not be able to save the life of the victim, the proportionality
test may be said to be satisfied.
55
Although duress has been admitted as a defence
against homicides,
56
postSecond World War case law suggests that courts have rarely
allowed duress to succeed in cases involving unlawful killing, even where they have
in principle admitted the applicability of this defence. This restrictive approach has
its roots in the fundamental importance of human life to law and society, from which
it follows that any legal endorsement of attacks on, or interference with, this right
will be very strictly construed and only exceptionally admitted.
57
The result would
be different where the homicide would have been committed in any case by a person
other than the one acting under duress.
58
This was the case with Erdemovic who
argued that had he not adhered to his superiors to execute Bosnian civilians, not
only would he have been shot but others would have taken his place as executioners.
In such cases the requirement of proportionality is satisfied because the harm caused
by not obeying the illegal order is not much greater than the harm that would have
resulted from obeying it.
59
This requirement of proportionality is clearly a subjective
one, irrespective of whether the greater harm is in fact avoided.
The concept of necessity is broader than duress, encompassing threats to life and
limb generally, and not only when they emanate from another person.
60
There is a
subjective element in the definition of necessity in that the person should reasonably
believe that there is a threat of imminent or otherwise unavoidable death or serious
bodily harm to him or to another person. This should be combined with an objective
criterion, that the person acted necessarily and reasonably to avoid the threat and
moreover did not voluntarily expose him or herself to the threat or danger. Since the
defence of ‘necessity’ is encompassed within the general concept of duress in sub-
para (d), it necessarily follows that it is used to merely qualify the ‘threat or danger’
giving rise to a defence of duress. Therefore, duress in sub-para (d) is broader than
the equivalent concept found in general international law. This is not, however, the
end of the story, since, as already noted, Art 21(1)(c) of the Statute empowers the
Court to delve into domestic law in cases where all other sources have failed to extract
satisfactory solutions. In such cases the Court would find itself unable to extrapolate
general principles because of the divergence of national legislation on necessity
55
Ibid,
para 42.
56
It was only in the
Holzer
case, cited
ibid,
para 26, that both the prosecutor and the JudgeAdvocate
contended that duress can never excuse the killing or innocent persons, relying however, on
English law.
57
Erdemovic,
Appeals Decision (7 October 1997), para 43.
58
Ibid.
59
Ibid.
60
Ibid,
para 14. See also 1958 British Manual of Military Law,
The Law of War on Land,
para 630, which
puts forward the case of one who in extremity of hunger kills another person to eat him or her.
International Criminal Law
138
between the common law
61
and civil law systems.
62
Depending on relevant
circumstances, and after deeming it appropriate, the Court in a scenario of this type
might very well be inclined to decide that the application of the principles of a
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