mens rea
is negated as a result, whereas voluntary intoxication will only
produce the same effect if ‘the person knew, or disregarded the risk, that, as a result
of the intoxication, he or she was likely to engage in conduct constituting a crime’.
77
72
Crimes of basic intent in English law are those that can be committed recklessly, including those
forms where foresight or awareness must be proved. This encompasses assault, malicious wounding,
manslaughter and rape, among others. See
op cit,
Wilson, note 10, p 258.
73
Ibid,
pp 253–56.
74
See I Bantekas, ‘The Contemporary Law of Superior Responsibility’, 93
AJIL
(1999), 573, p 586,
regarding liability of superiors who are commanders of occupied territories.
75
GR Sullivan, ‘Involuntary Intoxication and Beyond’,
Crim LR
[1994], 272.
76
Op cit,
Wilson, note 10, pp 254–55.
77
During the preparatory discussions two approaches to voluntary intoxication surfaced: if it was
decided that voluntary intoxication should in no case be an acceptable defence, provision should
nonetheless be made for mitigation of punishment with regard to persons who were not able to
form a specific intent, where required, towards the crime committed due to their intoxication; if
voluntary intoxication were to be retained as a valid defence, as was finally accepted, an exception
would be made for those cases where the person became intoxicated in order to commit the crime in
an intoxicated condition. UN Doc A/CONF 183/2/Add 1 (14 April 1998), p 57.
Chapter 6: Defences in International Criminal Law
141
6.6
MISTAKE OF FACT OR MISTAKE OF LAW
There were widely divergent views on this provision. Two options were initially
inserted, whereby delegates were divided over whether mistake of law or fact should
be a ground for excluding liability or not. Some delegations were of the view that
mistake of fact was not necessary because it was covered by
mens rea
.
78
The view
eventually accepted was that both mistake of fact and law constitute valid grounds
for excluding criminal responsibility only if the mistake under consideration negates
the mental element required by the crime.
79
However, a mistake of law ‘as to whether
a particular type of conduct is a crime’ shall not be a ground for excluding criminal
responsibility.
80
Paragraph 2 of Art 32, moreover, makes the necessary connection
between mistake of law and superior orders. Where a subordinate receives an
unlawful order which is not manifestly unlawful and which he or she is under an
obligation to obey, the subordinate will be exculpated where he or she believed the
order to lie within the confines of legitimacy.
A situation not covered in Art 32 is that of the doctrine of ‘transferred intent’.
Where A plans to kill B, but mistakenly assumes C for B, and proceeds to kill C, A’s
mistake as to a charge of murder is irrelevant. His mistake did not prevent him from
forming
mens rea
for the crime of murder. The ‘transferred intent’ doctrine should
also find application before the ICC in situations analogous to the conduct just
described. As for the applicable test for either a mistake of fact or of law, the wording
of the Statute suggests that this is a subjective one. This is in line with English law,
for example, where mistakes as to justificatory/definitional defences
81
need only be
honest.
82
6.7
MENTAL INCAPACITY
A defence of mental incapacity necessarily develops and evolves alongside medical/
psychiatric advances. Although this is recognised in domestic legal systems, in
essence because serious mental incapacity negates the mental element of crime, law
making institutions and courts are not bound in incorporating such scientific evidence
into the criminal law. Article 31(1)(a) of the ICC Statute exculpates from criminal
responsibility where the defence of mental incapacity is proven. However, besides a
general qualification of the scope of mental incapacity, none of the variants recognised
in the different legal systems are employed, and for good reason. In the limited spatial
confines of the Prep Com, agreement would have been impossible, and by that time,
para 3 of Art 31 had been inserted, or was imminent, whereby the Court could
proprio
motu
derive any additional appropriate defence by reference to general principles
78
Ibid,
pp 56–57.
79
ICC Statute, Art 32.
80
Ibid,
Art 32(2).
81
That is, defences operating within the parameters of the offence definition, such as consent.
82
R v Williams
(1984) 78 Cr App R 276;
Beckford v R
[1988] AC 130. See
op cit,
Wilson, note 10, p 203.
International Criminal Law
142
of law. In fact, it is very likely that the elaboration of this defence before the ICC will
depend almost exclusively on such principles.
83
The defence was raised in the
Celebici
case, where an ICTY Trial Chamber
established a two-tier test of ‘diminished responsibility’. This consists of an
‘abnormality of mind’ which the accused must be suffering at the time of the crime,
which must moreover ‘substantially impair’ the ability of the accused to control his
or her actions.
84
This test was essentially constructed on the basis of English law.
85
On the facts of the case, the Court although recognising that the accused Landzo
suffered from an abnormality of mind, it rejected his claim because in its opinion he
failed to prove that the impairment was substantial. The basis of this judgment does
represent at a minimum the incorporation of the defence in the various legal systems,
and as such was deemed appropriate for the purposes of the ICC Statute. It may
successfully be raised where:
The person suffers from a mental disease or defect that destroys that person’s capacity
to appreciate the unlawfulness or nature of his or her conduct, or capacity to control
his or her conduct to conform to the requirements of law.
It is uncertain whether this may serve as a complete or partial defence, but there is
no reason why both cannot be applicable. As for the burden of proof, based on
discussions in previous sections of this chapter, this is an affirmative defence whose
elements must be raised and satisfied by the accused on a balance of probabilities.
86
In its determination of the factual criteria relating to this defence, the Court will
have recourse to expert witnesses, provided by both parties,
87
and also from a list of
experts approved by the Registrar, or an expert approved by the Court at the request
of a party.
88
This intricate interplay between law and psychiatry/forensics, coupled
with (a) the relatively wide definition of Art 31(1)(a), and (b) the liberal rules on the
production of evidence (as long as probative value can be demonstrated), ensures
that technical consultants will be a substantial guide for the Court.
89
83
The lack of international jurisprudence was also evident during the drafting of the ICTY Statute,
where the UN Secretary General’s report, although silent on the specific issue, left it to the Tribunal
to decide the fate of ‘mental incapacity, drawing upon general principles of law recognised by all
nations’. UN Doc S/25704 (1993), reprinted in 32 ILM (1993), 1159, para 58.
84
ICTY Prosecutor v Delalic and Others
(
Celebici
case), Judgment (16 November 1998), Case No IT-96–
21-T, paras 1165–70.
85
R v Byrne
[1960] 3 All ER 1, p 4.
86
Celebici,
Judgment (16 November 1998), paras 78, 1160, 1172.
87
ICC Rules of Procedure and Evidence, r 135(1).
88
Ibid,
r 135(3).
89
See generally, P Krug, The Emerging Mental Incapacity Defence in International Criminal Law:
Some Initial Questions of Implementation’, 94
AJIL
(2000), 317, pp 322–35.
CHAPTER 7
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