Unit III
Regulation & Treaties in International Business
The learning objectives from this lesson are as follows:
1.
To understand the basic concept of Licensing & Franchising
2.
To understand the basic concept of Joint Ventures
3.
To understand the basic concept of GATT
4.
To understand the working of World Trade Organisation (WTO)
5.
To understand Trade Related Investment Measures(TRIMS)
6.
To understand Trade Related Intellectual Property Right(TRIPS)
7.
To understand Dumping & Counter trade
8.
To understand the E-Commerce Transactions and its effect on
Taxation
1. LICENSING
Licensing can be defined as a contractual arrangement whereby one company
(the licensor) makes an asset available to another company (the licensee) In
exchange for royalties; license fees, or some other form of compensation. The
licensed assume may be a patent, trade secret, or company name. Licensing is a
form of global market entry and an expansion strategy with considerable appeal.
A company with advanced technology, know-how, or a strong brand image can
use licensing agreements to supplement its bottom-line profitability with little
initial investment. Licensing can offer an attractive return on investment for the
life of the agreement, providing the necessary performance clauses are in the
contract. The only cost is the cost of signing the agreement and of policing its
implementation.
Of course, anything so easily attained has its disadvantages and risks. The
principal disadvantage of licensing is that it can be a very limited form of
participation. When licensing technology or know-how, what a company does
not know can put it at risk. Potential returns from marketing and manufacturing
may be lost, and the agreement may have a short life if the licensee develops its
own know-how and capability to stay abreast of technology in the licensed
product area. Eyen more distressing, licensees have a troublesome way of
turning themselves into competitors to industry leaders. This is especially true
because licensing enables a company to borrow-leverage and exploit-another
company's resources. In Japan, for example, Meiji Milk produced and marketed
Lady Borden premium ice cream under a licensing agreement with Borden, Inc.
Meiji learned important skills in dairy product processing, and, as the expiration
dates of the licensing contracts drew near, rolled out its own premium ice cream
brands.
Perhaps the most famous U.S. licensing fiasco dates back to the mid-1950s,
when Sony cofounder Masaru Ibuka obtained a licensing agreement for the
transistor from AT&T's Bell Laboratories. Ibuka dreamed of using transistors to
make small, battery-powered radios. Bell engineers informed Ibuka that it was
impossible to manufacture transistors that could handle the high frequencies
required for a radio; they advised him to try making hearing aids. Undeterred,
Ibuka presented the challenge to his Japanese engineers, who spent many
months improving high-frequency output. Sony was not the first company to
unveil a transistor radio; an American-built product, the Regency, featured
transistors from Texas Instruments and a colorful plastic case. However, it was
Sony's high quality, distinctive approach to styling, and marketing savvy that
ultimately translated into worldwide success.
Conversely, the failure to seize an opportunity to license can also lead to dire
con" sequences. In the mid-1980s, Apple Computer chairman John Sculley
decided against licensing Apple's famed operating system. Such a move would
have allowed other computer manufacturers to produce Macintosh-compatible
units. Meanwhile, Microsoft's growing world dominance in computer operating
systems and applications got a boost from Windows, which featured a Mac-like
graphical interface. Apple belatedly reversed direction and licensed its operating
system, first to Power Computing Corporation in December 1994 and then to
IBM and Motorola. The Mac clones have been very popular; Power Computing
shipped 170,000 Macintosh clones in 1996, and in 1997 the. Mac clones had
captured over 25 percent of the Mac market. Despite these actions, the global
market share for Macintosh and Mac clones has slipped below 5 percent.
Apple's failure to license its technology in the pre-Windows era ultimately cost
the company over $125 billion dollars (the market capitalization of Microsoft,
the company that won the operating system war).
As the Borden and transistor stories make clear, companies may find that the
upfront, easy money obtained from licensing turns out to be a very expensive
source of revenue. To prevent a licensor/competitor from gaining unilateral
benefit, licensing agreements should provide for a cross-technology exchange
between all parties. At the absolute minimum, any company that plans to remain
in business must ensure that its license agreements provide for full cross-
licensing-that is, the licensee shares its developments with the licensor. Overall,
the licensing strategy must ensure ongoing competitive advantage. For example,
license arrangements can create export market opportunities and open the door
to low-risk manufacturing relationships. They can also speed diffusion of new
products or technologies. .
When companies do decide to license, they should sign agreements that
anticipate more extensive market participation in the future. Insofar as is
possible, a company should keep options and paths open for other forms of
market participation. One path is a joint venture with the licensee.
Trademarks can be an important part of the creation and protection of
opportunities for lucrative licenses. Image-oriented companies such as Coca-
Cola and Disney. as well as designers such as Pierre Cardin, license their
trademarked names and logos to overseas producers of clothing, toys, and
watches. Business is booming: The top-tier names are expanding their fee
income by 15 percent a year and more. When licensing a trademark, the
challenge is to 'maintain and enhance the brand equity of the marque. This
means that licensees must be carefully 'selected and supervised. A bad licensee
can seriously depreciate the value of a marque by turning out merchandise or
services that do not meet up to the standard of the marque.
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