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Problem solving Within the cognitive tradition, the set of thinking processes or actions involved in the solving of a problem. Problems may be routine or novel. Routine problem solving involves moving from a given state to a goal state based on a solution plan primed from similar past experiences. In contrast, novel problem solving entails the problem solver moving from a given state to a goal state by inventing the solution procedure. (Source: Seel 2012). Increasingly referred to as a key competence/competency and 21st century skill.
	Project-based learning A process that fosters learners’ engagement in studying authentic problems or issues centred on a particular project, theme, or idea. Often the term ‘project-based’ is used interchangeably with ‘problembased’, especially when classroom projects focus on solving authentic problems. The nexus for the project may be suggested by a teacher, but the planning and execution of contingent activities are predominantly 50 conducted by learners working individually and cooperatively over many days, weeks, or even months. This process is inquiry-based, outcome-oriented, and associated with conducting the curriculum in real-world contexts rather than focusing on a curriculum that is relegated to textbooks or rote learning and memorization. Assessment is commonly performancebased, flexible, varied, and continuous. (Adapted from: Kridel 2010). See also ‘Problem-based learning’.