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[N. Gregory(N. Gregory Mankiw) Mankiw] Principles (BookFi)

The price effect:
Raising production will increase the total amount sold, which
will lower the price of water and lower the profit on all the other gallons
sold.
If the output effect is larger than the price effect, the well owner will increase pro-
duction. If the price effect is larger than the output effect, the owner will not raise
production. (In fact, in this case, it is profitable to reduce production.) Each oli-
gopolist continues to increase production until these two marginal effects exactly
balance, taking the other firms’ production as given.
Now consider how the number of firms in the industry affects the marginal
analysis of each oligopolist. The larger the number of sellers, the less concerned
each seller is about its own impact on the market price. That is, as the oligopoly
grows in size, the magnitude of the price effect falls. When the oligopoly grows
very large, the price effect disappears altogether, leaving only the output effect. In
this extreme case, each firm in the oligopoly increases production as long as price
is above marginal cost.
We can now see that a large oligopoly is essentially a group of competitive
firms. A competitive firm considers only the output effect when deciding how
much to produce: Because a competitive firm is a price taker, the price effect is ab-
sent. Thus, 
as the number of sellers in an oligopoly grows larger, an oligopolistic market
looks more and more like a competitive market. The price approaches marginal cost, and the
quantity produced approaches the socially efficient level.
This analysis of oligopoly offers a new perspective on the effects of interna-
tional trade. Imagine that Toyota and Honda are the only automakers in Japan,
Volkswagen and Mercedes-Benz are the only automakers in Germany, and Ford
and General Motors are the only automakers in the United States. If these nations
prohibited trade in autos, each would have an auto oligopoly with only two mem-
bers, and the market outcome would likely depart substantially from the compet-
itive ideal. With international trade, however, the car market is a world market,
and the oligopoly in this example has six members. Allowing free trade increases


C H A P T E R 1 6
O L I G O P O LY
3 5 7
C A S E S T U D Y
OPEC AND THE WORLD OIL MARKET
Our story about the town’s market for water is fictional, but if we change water
to crude oil, and Jack and Jill to Iran and Iraq, the story is quite close to being
true. Much of the world’s oil is produced by a few countries, mostly in the Mid-
dle East. These countries together make up an oligopoly. Their decisions about
how much oil to pump are much the same as Jack and Jill’s decisions about how
much water to pump.
The countries that produce most of the world’s oil have formed a cartel,
called the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). As origi-
nally formed in 1960, OPEC included Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and
Venezuela. By 1973, eight other nations had joined: Qatar, Indonesia, Libya,
the United Arab Emirates, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador, and Gabon. These coun-
tries control about three-fourths of the world’s oil reserves. Like any cartel,
OPEC tries to raise the price of its product through a coordinated reduction in
quantity produced. OPEC tries to set production levels for each of the member
countries.
The problem that OPEC faces is much the same as the problem that Jack
and Jill face in our story. The OPEC countries would like to maintain a high
price of oil. But each member of the cartel is tempted to increase production in
order to get a larger share of the total profit. OPEC members frequently agree to
reduce production but then cheat on their agreements.
OPEC was most successful at maintaining cooperation and high prices in
the period from 1973 to 1985. The price of crude oil rose from $2.64 a barrel in
1972 to $11.17 in 1974 and then to $35.10 in 1981. But in the early 1980s member
countries began arguing about production levels, and OPEC became ineffective
at maintaining cooperation. By 1986 the price of crude oil had fallen back to
$12.52 a barrel.
During the 1990s, the members of OPEC met about twice a year, but the car-
tel failed to reach and enforce agreement. The members of OPEC made produc-
tion decisions largely independently of one another, and the world market for
oil was fairly competitive. Throughout most of the decade, the price of crude
oil, adjusted for overall inflation, remained less than half the level OPEC had
achieved in 1981. In 1999, however, cooperation among oil-exporting nations
started to pick up (see the accompanying In the News box). Only time will tell
how persistent this renewed cooperation proves to be.
the number of producers from which each consumer can choose, and this
increased competition keeps prices closer to marginal cost. Thus, the theory
of oligopoly provides another reason, in addition to the theory of compara-
tive advantage discussed in Chapter 3, why all countries can benefit from free
trade.
OPEC: A
NOT VERY COOPERATIVE CARTEL
Q U I C K Q U I Z :
If the members of an oligopoly could agree on a total 
quantity to produce, what quantity would they choose?

If the oligopolists 
do not act together but instead make production decisions individually, do 
they produce a total quantity more or less than in your answer to the previous 
question? Why?


3 5 8
PA R T F I V E
F I R M B E H AV I O R A N D T H E O R G A N I Z AT I O N O F I N D U S T R Y
G A M E T H E O R Y A N D T H E
E C O N O M I C S O F C O O P E R AT I O N
As we have seen, oligopolies would like to reach the monopoly outcome, but do-
ing so requires cooperation, which at times is difficult to maintain. In this section
we look more closely at the problems people face when cooperation is desirable
but difficult. To analyze the economics of cooperation, we need to learn a little
about game theory.

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