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[N. Gregory(N. Gregory Mankiw) Mankiw] Principles (BookFi)

utility.
Utility is an abstract mea-
sure of the satisfaction or happi-
ness that a consumer receives
from a bundle of goods. Econo-
mists say that a consumer
prefers one bundle of goods to
another if the first provides
more utility than the second.
Indifference cur ves and utility are closely related. Be-
cause the consumer prefers points on higher indifference
cur ves, bundles of goods on higher indifference cur ves pro-
vide higher utility. Because the consumer is equally happy
with all points on the same indifference cur ve, all these
bundles provide the same utility. Indeed, you can think of an
indifference cur ve as an “equal-utility” cur ve. The slope of
the indifference cur ve (the marginal rate of substitution) re-
flects the marginal utility generated by one good compared
to the marginal utility generated by the other good.
When economists discuss the theor y of consumer
choice, they might express the theor y using different words.
One economist might say that the goal of the consumer is to
maximize utility. Another might say that the goal of the con-
sumer is to end up on the highest possible indifference
cur ve. In essence, these are two ways of saying the same
thing.
F Y I
Utility: An
Alternative
Way to
Represent a
Consumer’s
Preferences


4 7 2
PA R T S E V E N
A D VA N C E D T O P I C
it lies above his budget constraint. The consumer can afford point B, but that point
is on a lower indifference curve and, therefore, provides the consumer less satis-
faction. The optimum represents the best combination of consumption of Pepsi
and pizza available to the consumer.
Notice that, at the optimum, the slope of the indifference curve equals the
slope of the budget constraint. We say that the indifference curve is 
tangent
to the
budget constraint. The slope of the indifference curve is the marginal rate of sub-
stitution between Pepsi and pizza, and the slope of the budget constraint is the
relative price of Pepsi and pizza. Thus, 
the consumer chooses consumption of the two
goods so that the marginal rate of substitution equals the relative price.
In Chapter 7 we saw how market prices reflect the marginal value that con-
sumers place on goods. This analysis of consumer choice shows the same result in
another way. In making his consumption choices, the consumer takes as given the
relative price of the two goods and then chooses an optimum at which his mar-
ginal rate of substitution equals this relative price. The relative price is the rate at
which the 
market
is willing to trade one good for the other, whereas the marginal
rate of substitution is the rate at which the 
consumer
is willing to trade one good for
the other. At the consumer’s optimum, the consumer’s valuation of the two goods
(as measured by the marginal rate of substitution) equals the market’s valuation
(as measured by the relative price). As a result of this consumer optimization, mar-
ket prices of different goods reflect the value that consumers place on those goods.
H O W C H A N G E S I N I N C O M E A F F E C T
T H E C O N S U M E R ’ S C H O I C E S
Now that we have seen how the consumer makes the consumption decision, let’s
examine how consumption responds to changes in income. To be specific, suppose
Quantity
of Pizza
Quantity
of Pepsi
0
Optimum
A
B
Budget constraint
I
1
I
2
I
3
F i g u r e 2 1 - 6
T
HE
C
ONSUMER

S
O
PTIMUM
.
The consumer chooses the point
on his budget constraint that lies
on the highest indifference curve.
At this point, called the optimum,
the marginal rate of substitution
equals the relative price of the
two goods. Here the highest
indifference curve the consumer
can reach is 
I
2
. The consumer
prefers point A, which lies on
indifference curve 
I
3
, but the
consumer cannot afford this
bundle of Pepsi and pizza. By
contrast, point B is affordable, but
because it lies on a lower
indifference curve, the consumer
does not prefer it.


C H A P T E R 2 1
T H E T H E O R Y O F C O N S U M E R C H O I C E
4 7 3
that income increases. With higher income, the consumer can afford more of both
goods. The increase in income, therefore, shifts the budget constraint outward,
as in Figure 21-7. Because the relative price of the two goods has not changed,
the slope of the new budget constraint is the same as the slope of the initial budget
constraint. That is, an increase in income leads to a parallel shift in the budget
constraint.
The expanded budget constraint allows the consumer to choose a better com-
bination of Pepsi and pizza. In other words, the consumer can now reach a higher
indifference curve. Given the shift in the budget constraint and the consumer’s
preferences as represented by his indifference curves, the consumer’s optimum
moves from the point labeled “initial optimum” to the point labeled “new opti-
mum.”
Notice that, in Figure 21-7, the consumer chooses to consume more Pepsi and
more pizza. Although the logic of the model does not require increased consump-
tion of both goods in response to increased income, this situation is the most com-
mon one. As you may recall from Chapter 4, if a consumer wants more of a good
when his income rises, economists call it a 

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