Chapter 7: State Jurisdiction and Immunities
171
persists with respect to official acts, the determination of what constitutes an official
act is to be made in accordance with customary law. It held that international crimes,
such as torture, cannot constitute official acts of a Head of State.
177
Indeed, since Art
1(1) of the 1984 Torture Convention defines torture as an act that can only be inflicted
by a public official, the mere invocation of immunity
ratione materiae
would render
the Torture Convention redundant. Article 1(1) has to be read, hence, as excluding
such immunity. Similarly, an acting Head of State cannot invoke the gross violation
of human rights as a public act in order to avoid prosecution. More recently, in
February 2000, a court in Senegal indicted Hissene Habre, the Head of State in Chad
from 1982–90, for acts of torture during his reign in that country, but on 20 March
2001 the Cour de Cassation of that country held that Habre could not be tried under
torture charges in Senegal.
178
Whatever the precise scope of Head of State immunity,
in
USA v Noriega
it was held that illegitimate assumption of power does not carry
immunity benefits.
179
This statement, welcomed as it may be, should be approached
with caution, because the US Government has not hesitated in the past to afford full
immunities and support to illegitimate dictatorial regimes. Interestingly, the ECHR,
in the
Al-Adsani
case, took the view that even
jus cogens
norms, such as the prohibition
against torture, must be construed as existing in harmony with other recognised
principles of international law, namely state immunity. The applicant was tortured
by government agents in Kuwait and pursued civil claims before British courts for a
period of 10 years, which rejected his claims on the basis of immunity afforded under
the SIA 1978. Thereafter, he sought refuge before the ECHR, arguing that the SIA
violated his right of access to judicial remedies. The Court rejected his claim, arguing
that immunity is inherent in the operation of international law, and cannot be
regarded as imposing a disproportionate restriction on the right of access to court.
180
As already noted, until very recently, human rights abuses were perceived as
issues exclusive to the domestic jurisdiction of the concerned State. US courts have
attempted to detach human rights violations from the range of official acts which
may lawfully be attributed to the State, but only where public officials acted
independently, either in pursuance of personal interests as in the case of Noriega
and Marcos, or beyond the level of abuse authorised by the State they represent. In
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