Public Prosecutor v SHT,
74 ILR 162.
135 Under the 1971 Montreal Convention, Art 2(b), an aircraft is considered to be in service from the
beginning of pre-flight preparation until 24 hours after landing.
Chapter 7: State Jurisdiction and Immunities
163
not susceptible to all these limitations. Their competence is derived from their
constitutive instrument and is not at all confined by the jurisdictional principles
and constraints applicable to municipal courts. This form of jurisdiction is termed
‘international’.
Both the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY) and
Rwanda (ICTR) are the product of Chapter VII Security Council resolutions. In theory,
the Security Council could have prescribed a very wide jurisdictional competence,
whether
ratione materia
or
ratione temporis,
which would otherwise have been
ultra
vires
for national courts, but not for a tribunal established under a Security Council
resolution. The same would apply to a tribunal established through treaty, such as
the International Criminal Court (ICC), but only where its Statute received global
ratification. Since every international tribunal is a self-contained system, its
jurisdictional powers can only be limited by its constitutive instrument, but only to
the extent that such limitation does not endanger its judicial character.
136
Although
the ICTY is a subsidiary organ of the Security Council, the Appeals Chamber in the
Tadic Jurisdiction
case correctly pointed out that it is a special kind of subsidiary organ,
a tribunal endowed with judicial functions.
137
By implication of its judicial nature, a
tribunal enjoys a certain degree of ‘inherent’ or ‘incidental’ jurisdiction. One element
of this inherent jurisdiction, which is exercisable even if not mentioned in its Statute,
is an international tribunal’s competence to determine its own jurisdiction.
138
The
ICTY has further held that it may, in the exercise of its incidental jurisdiction, examine
the legality of its establishment by the Security Council, but only so far as this is
needed to ascertain the scope of its ‘primary’ jurisdiction.
139
We have already seen that even where a treaty delimits the prescriptive
competence of States, there is no clear jurisdictional hierarchy. International tribunals
do not face such conflicts. Article 9(1) of the ICTY Statute provides for concurrent
jurisdiction with national criminal courts. However, para 2 emphatically establishes
primacy for the ICTY, by stating:
The International Tribunal shall have primacy over national courts. At any stage of
the procedure, the International Tribunal may formally request national courts to
defer to the competence of the International Tribunal in accordance with the present
Statute and the Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Tribunal.
It is evident that the ICTY enjoys primacy in an emphatic manner.
140
This is not
however the case with the ICC. The ICC’s jurisdiction is premised on the concept of
complementarity with national courts, whose primary competence it may
exceptionally override only where a State is shielding an accused,
141
or where it is
136
ICTY Prosecutor v Tadic,
Decision on the Defence Motion for Interlocutory Appeal on Jurisdiction
(Tadic decision on jurisdiction), 105 ILR 453, para 11; see also
ICTR Prosecutor v Kanyabashi,
Decision
on Jurisdiction, 92
AJIL
(1998), 66.
137
Ibid,
Tadic decision on jurisdiction, para 15.
138
Advisory Opinion on the Effect of Awards of Compensation Made by the United Nations Administrative
Tribunal
(1954) ICJ Reports 47, p 51. This power is termed ‘KompetenzKompetenz’.
139
Tadic
decision on jurisdiction, para 21.
140 See G Aldrich, ‘Jurisdiction of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia’, 90
AJIL
(1996), 64.
141 ICC Statute, Arts 17(1)(a), (b) and 2(a).
142
Ibid,
Art 17(1)(a), (b).
International Criminal Law
164
genuinely unable to carry out an investigation or prosecution.
142
The ICC is burdened
with further limitations. Upon becoming a party to its Statute, a State automatically
accepts the jurisdiction of the Court with respect to the four core crimes,
143
subject to
the qualification of Art 124 regarding the transitional period.
144
Under Art 12, the
court may exercise jurisdiction if it has the consent of the State on whose territory
the offence was perpetrated,
or
of which the accused is a national. However, if a
situation is referred to the Court by the Security Council, the Court will have
jurisdiction even if the acts concerned were committed on the territory of non-parties
or nationals of non-parties and in the absence of consent by the territorial State or
the State of nationality of the accused.
145
In any other case, non-States parties must
make a declaration accepting the Court’s jurisdiction, as a precondition to the exercise
of jurisdiction.
146
The difference in the powers vested in the ICTY and ICC can be explained by the
fact that the former was the product of a Security Council resolution under Chapter
VII of the UN Charter, whereas the ICC was established as a result of a multilateral
treaty, which necessarily entailed a great deal of compromise. The enforcement
jurisdiction of the ICTY under Art 29 of its Statute is, thus, significantly enhanced,
since it has the power,
inter alia,
to order the arrest and surrender of persons and the
production of documents irrespective of nationality of persons or the location of
documents or other evidentiary material.
147
Because international tribunals are
limited by their Statute, the application of the
Lotus
rule by national courts, whereby
national criminal jurisdiction under any basis is permissible subject only to a contrary
binding rule of international law, does not apply to the subject matter jurisdiction of
the ICTY nor the ICC. The subject matter jurisdiction of these international tribunals
cannot be extended through construction of their Statutes under the jurisdictional
principles applicable to municipal courts, nor as part of the courts’ incidental
jurisdiction.
‘International jurisdiction’ is enjoyed by tribunals established through interstate
agreements and Security Council resolutions. Unlike the International Military
Tribunal at Nuremberg (IMT) the various ‘subsequent’ tribunals established by the
allies in Germany after 1945 were not the product of treaty making. Despite the
application of international law by some of them, their legal basis was domestic
legislation, such as the Allied Control Council Law for Germany No 10, the British
Royal Warrant and various US Theatre Regulations and Directives. These tribunals
were, therefore, obliged to observe the internationally acceptable rules pertaining
to the exercise of national judicial jurisdiction.
143
Ibid,
Art 12(1).
144 According to Art 124, a State party may declare its non-acceptance of the Court’s jurisdiction for a
period of seven years after the entry into force of the Statute, with respect to war crimes alleged to
have been committed by its nationals or on its territory.
145 M Arsanjani, ‘The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court’, 93
AJIL
(1999), 22, pp 26–27.
146 ICC Statute, Art 12(2) and (3).
147
ICTY Prosecutor v Blaskic,
Appeals Judgment on the Request of the Republic of Croatia for Review of
the Decision of Trial Chamber II (1997) 110 ILR 607.
Chapter 7: State Jurisdiction and Immunities
165
7.10 IMMUNITIES FROM CRIMINAL JURISDICTION
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