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“Cirque du Soleil at a Glance” (2012), http://www.cirquedusoleil.
com/en/home/shows.aspx, accessed on January 1, 2014; Lyn Heward
and John U. Bacon, Spark: Igniting the Creative Fire That Lives within
Us All (Toronto: Doubleday Canada, 2006); Arupa Tesolin, “Igniting
the Creative Spark at Cirque du Soleil,” SelfGrowth.com, www
.selfgrowth.com, accessed on January 1, 2014; Geoff Keighly, “The
Phantasmagoria Factory,” CNNMoney.com, http://money.cnn.com,
accessed on January 1, 2014; Glenn Collins, “Run Away to the Circus?
No Need. It’s Staying Here,” New York Times, April 29, 2009, www
.nytimes.com, accessed on January 1, 2014.
2
For a review of definitions of groups, see Gregory Moorhead and
Ricky W. Griffin,
Organizational Behavior, 11th ed. (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 2013).
3
Dorwin Cartwright and Alvin Zander, eds., Group Dynamics:
Research and Theory, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1968).
4
Rob Cross, Nitin Nohria, and Andrew Parker, “Six Myths about
Informal Networks—and How to Overcome Them,”
Sloan
Management Review, Spring 2002, pp. 67–77. See also Richard
McDermott and Douglas Archibald, “Harnessing Your Staff’s
Informal Networks,” Harvard Business Review, March 2010,
pp. 82–89.
5
Robert Schrank, Ten Thousand Working Days (Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1978); and Bill Watson, “Counter Planning
on the Shop Floor,” in Peter Frost, Vance Mitchell, and Walter
Nord (eds.), Organizational Reality, 2nd ed. (Glenview, IL: Scott,
Foresman, 1982), pp. 286–294.
6
“After Layoffs, More Workers Band Together,” Wall Street
Journal, February 26, 2002, p. B1.
7
Bradley L. Kirkman and Benson Rosen, “Powering Up Teams,”
Organizational Dynamics, Winter 2000, pp. 48–58.
8
John Mathieu, M. Travis Maynard, Tammy Rapp, and Lucy
Gibson, “Team Effectiveness 1997–2007: A Review of Recent
Advancements and a Glimpse into the Future,” Journal of
Management, 2008, Vol. 34, No. 3, pp. 410–476.
9
Arvind Malhotra, Ann Majchrzak, and Benson Rosen, “Leading
Virtual Teams,”
Academy of Management Perspectives, 2007,
Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 60–70.
10
“Why Teams Fail,” USA Today, February 25, 1997, pp. 1B, 2B.
11
Brian Dumaine, “The Trouble with Teams,” Fortune, September
5, 1994, pp. 86–92. See also Susan G. Cohen and Diane E. Bailey,
“What Makes Teams Work: Group Effectiveness Research from
the Shop Floor to the Executive Suite,” Journal of Management,
1997, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 239–290; and John Mathieu, Lucy
Gilson, and Thomas Ruddy, “Empowerment and Team Effec-
tiveness: An Empirical Test of an Integrated Model,” Journal of
Applied Psychology, 2006, Vol. 91, No. 1, pp. 97–108.
12
Marvin E. Shaw, Group Dynamics: The Psychology of Small Group
Behavior, 4th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1985).
13
“How to Avoid Hiring the Prima Donnas Who Hate Teamwork,”
Wall Street Journal, February 15, 2000, p. B1.
14
See Connie Gersick, “Marking Time: Predictable Transitions in
Task Groups,”
Academy of Management Journal, June 1989,
Vol. 32, No. 2, pp. 274–309. See also Janis A. Cannon-Bowers
and Clint Bowers, “Team Development and Functioning,” in
Sheldon Zedeck (ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organiza-
tional Psychology, Vol. 1:
Building and Developing the Organiza-
tion (Washington, DC: American Psychological Association,
2010), pp. 597–650.
15
See Gilad Chen, “Newcomer Adaptation in Teams: Multilevel
Antecedents and Outcomes,”
Academy of Management Journal,
2005, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 101–116.
16
For a review of other team characteristics, see Michael Campion,
Gina Medsker, and A. Catherine Higgs, “Relations between Work
Group Characteristics and Effectiveness: Implications for
Designing Effective Work Groups,” Personnel Psychology, Winter
1993, pp. 823–850.
17
David Katz and Robert L. Kahn, The Social Psychology of
Organizations, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1978), pp. 187–221.
See also Greg L. Stewart and Murray R. Barrick, “Team Structure
and Performance: Assessing the Mediating Role of Intrateam
Process and the Moderating Role of Task Type,” Academy of
Management Journal, 2000, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 135–148; and
Michael G. Pratt and Peter O. Foreman, “Classifying Managerial
Responses to Multiple Organizational Identities,” Academy of
Management Review, 2000, Vol. 25, No. 1, pp. 18–42.
18
See Travis C. Tubre and Judith M. Collins, “Jackson and Schuler
(1985) Revisited: A Meta-Analysis of the Relationships between
Role Ambiguity, Role Conflict, and Job Performance,” Journal of
Management, 2000, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 155–169. See also David
M. Sluss, Rolf van Dick, and Bryant S. Thompson, “Role Theory
in Organizations: A Relational Perspective,” in Sheldon Zedeck
(ed.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology,
Vol. 1: Building and Developing the Organization (Washington,
DC: American Psychological Association, 2010), pp. 503–534.
19
Robert L. Kahn, D. M. Wolfe, R. P. Quinn, J. D. Snoek, and R. A.
Rosenthal,
Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and
Role Ambiguity (New York: Wiley, 1964).
20
Daniel C. Feldman, “The Development and Enforcement of
Group Norms,”
Academy of Management Review, January 1984,
Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 47–53.
21
“Companies Turn to Peer Pressure to Cut Injuries as Psychologists
Join the Battle,”
Wall Street Journal, March 29, 1991, pp. B1, B3.
22
James Wallace Bishop and K. Dow Scott, “How Commitment
Affects Team Performance,”
HRMagazine, February 1997,
pp. 107–115.
23
Anne O’Leary-Kelly, Joseph Martocchio, and Dwight Frink, “A
Review of the Influence of Group Goals on Group Performance,”
Academy of Management Journal, 1994, Vol. 37, No. 5,
pp. 1285–1301.
24
For an interesting application of these ideas, see Anat Drach-
Zahavy and Anat Freund, “Team Effectiveness under Stress: A
Structural Contingency Approach,” Journal of Organizational
Behavior, 2007, Vol. 28, pp. 423–450.
25
Philip M. Podsakoff, Michael A. Hearne, and Scott B. MacKenzie,
“Organizational Citizenship Behavior and the Quantity and
Quality of Work Group Performance,” Journal of Applied
Psychology, 1997, Vol. 82, No. 2, pp. 262–270.
26
Suzy Wetlaufer, “Common Sense and Conflict,” Harvard
Business Review, January–February 2000, pp. 115–125.
27
Kathleen M. Eisenhardt, Jean L. Kahwajy, and L. J. Bourgeois III,
“How Management Teams Can Have a Good Fight,”
Harvard
Business Review, July–August 1997, pp. 77–89.
28
Thomas Bergmann and Roger Volkema, “Issues, Behavioral
Responses and Consequences in Interpersonal Conflicts,”
Journal
of Organizational Behavior, 1994, Vol. 15, pp. 467–471; see also
Carsten K. W. De Dreu, “The Virtue and Vice of Workplace
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