ul-alifbo
and Etikodoti Islomia) that these schools came to use extensively. Ashurali
Zahirii (1885–1938), Obidzhon Mahmud (1858–1936), and Nosirhontura Kamolhon-
turaev (1871–1938) also engaged in substantial educational and political work during
this period, as did many other Jadids of the Ferghana Valley. Some of them launched
the first newspapers and later formed national, social, and political organizations.
This active phase of the Jadid movement coincided with a new stage in the libera-
tion struggles of the colonial and semi-colonial peoples of the Muslim world. Thus,
the constitutional movement arose in Iran (1905–11), anti-colonial demonstrations
occurred in India (1905–8), and the Young Turk Revolution (1908–9) emerged in
the Ottoman Empire. Despite all obstacles and constrains, information continued
to flow into the region from these restless and rebellious lands. Clearly, Russian
authorities had failed to isolate Turkestan from the rest of the world. News of these
events elsewhere in the Muslim world stimulated the efforts of the Jadids in the
Ferghana Valley and in Turkestan as a whole.
Despite censorship, the Jadids continued to subscribe to various newspapers
and journals both from the eastern regions of the Russian Empire, including Tar-
jimon
from Bahchisarai, Vakt and Yulduz from Kazan, and Mulla Nasriddin from
Tiflis. The Jadids also read such periodicals from abroad as Sirotil mustakim from
Turkey, Sirodj-ul’-Akhbar from Afghanistan, Habul’-Vatan from India, and others.
Accessible materials in these publications gave readers a general idea of modern
economics, international law, parliamentary and municipality institutions, and of
the significance of joint stock companies. They introduced Turkestani readers to
many heretofore unknown developments, and prompted them to reflect on human
progress, European political and social institutions, national development, and the
evolution of eastern societies under colonial and semi-colonial regimes. Articles
and books by leaders of liberation movements went further, calling on dependent
peoples to fight in the name of freedom and justice.
The massive influx of progressive literature from “awakened” parts of Asia
inspired the Jadids to develop their own periodical press. They issued scores of
newspapers and journals in almost all of the large regional cities, among them
Sadoi-Fargona
and El-bairogi in Kokand; Tarakki, Shuhrat, Hurshid, and Sadoi-
Turkiston
in Tashkent; Samarkand and Oina in Samarkand; and Turon, Buhoro-
i-Sharif
in Bukhara. This national press did much to activate political life in the
region. A Russian paper correctly observed that such publications had “agitated
the stagnant waters of social life.”
68
The new press published articles by Jadids and other prominent writers that
explicitly criticized the colonial practices thwarting the national development of
the indigenous peoples. But these progressive writers did not stop at criticizing
the colonial administration. Acknowledging their own responsibilities before the
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 89
nation, they attempted to join forces for the common cause. The first decade of
the twentieth century witnessed a significant expansion of direct contacts between
Jadids in Ferghana and those elsewhere in Turkestan, including the “Young Bukha-
rans” and “Young Khivans,” as well as with reform-oriented groups like the Young
Turks, who generated an enormous resonance throughout the Muslim world. Local
activists wasted no time in sending their most prominent leaders to Turkey, where
the Young Turks helped them form a “Constantinople” association to spread use-
ful knowledge from that city.
69
The leaders of this and similar associations viewed
education as the chief means of bringing about comprehensive reform. No sooner
did they return from Turkey, Afghanistan and other countries than these young re-
formers launched a massive recruiting campaign to enlist hundreds of new people
in their ranks. In the process they created yet more associations and organizations,
including Tarbiaii-atfol, Padarkush, Umid, Nashri-Maorif, Barakat, Heirat, and
Tarakki-parvar. Notable among them was the Shamsinur association, created in
1908 by a group of madrassa students from Kokand who sought to foster cultural
and political education among local Muslims.
World War I unleashed revolutionary activity within Russia, and powerful anti-
colonial currents in Central Asia. Local associations multiplied. Within the Ferghana
Valley, the Padarkush and Tarakki-parvar groups played so active a role in 1915-
1916 that they aroused the attention of the Turkestani regional police. A police agent
reported that “Members of Tarakki-parvar party [ sic] confuse the population and
spread rumors about Russia’s weakness. By purposefully misinterpreting newspa-
per reports [about the progress of the war] they point to the possible separation of
Muslims from Russia and the creation of an independent [Muslim] state.”
70
Such reports led authorities to conduct searches and interrogations of alleged na-
tionalists, confiscate their property, and deport their leaders. Thus, following a search
and interrogation in early 1917, the governor-general of Turkestan banned a leader of
both the Padarkush and Tarakki-parvar groups, Ubaidulla Hodjaev, from Andijan and
Tashkent.
71
Members of the Kokand association Heirat faced similar measures.
An association headed by Islam Shoahmedov, editor and publisher of the
Russian-language newspaper Turkestanskii krai, wanted to issue a local-language
journal and newspaper. He operated a bookstore in the old part of the city and had
45,000 rubles in assets.
72
Shoahmedov planned to use the profits from his new
publications to assist wartime Turkey, which stood as “The guardian of Islam . . . ,
under whose banner all Muslims should unite.”
73
From all cities and towns of the
region, authorities received reports on the collection of funds, travel by nationalist
activists to Turkey, and the arrival in Central Asia of “emissaries” from Turkey and
elsewhere. All this prompted the authorities to circulate to local authorities such
instructions as the following, dated December 27, 1916:
Based on available evidence from the police, the Turkish committee of the “Soli-
darity and Progress” party plans to send its agents to organize strikes locally. The
Department . . . therefore asks that you undertake measures to identify, within the
90 R. ABDULLAEV, KHOTAMOV, KENENSARIEV
jurisdiction entrusted to you, all persons of Turkish origin and put them under
surveillance in order to prevent them from agitating or triggering strikes. Report
on this work to the Department.
74
Despite of such measures, progressive reformers in the Ferghana Valley and else-
where continued to maintain contact with one another while the national resistance
gained momentum. The Jadids had no intention of abandoning their goal of modern-
izing Central Asian society, and remained true to their dream of overcoming cultural
isolation and familiarizing Muslims with recent advances in human thought.
They also supported a democratic system of governance that would guarantee
civil liberties and political rights. Immediately after the February Revolution in
Russia, such new political organizations as Shuroi-Islomiia and Tyurk Odami
Markaziat Firkasi arose to champion these goals. Set up by Jadids and others,
they all maintained active branches throughout the Ferghana Valley. Their idea
was not to imitate in a perfunctory way or mechanically to adopt the externals of
European civilization. Rather, they sought to create the conditions necessary for
national revival by harmoniously blending useful European elements into the rich
spiritual culture of the region.
In all this the Jadids’ ideology was substantially shaped by currents of thought
flowing into the Ferghana Valley and the region as a whole from adjacent Muslim
countries. But even here they did not simply embrace the alien ideas from abroad.
Instead, they allowed the new ideas to pass through the prism of national beliefs
and traditions. Indeed, some radical Muslims from abroad already were propagat-
ing the notion of a hard-line opposition to the Christian West and a revival of the
universal caliphate. However, such ideas did not find widespread sympathy in either
the Ferghana Valley or Turkestan as a whole.
Progressive thinkers in Ferghana and elsewhere in Central Asia were deeply aware
of the huge role Islam had played over the centuries in the life of their traditional
society. Yet they did not exaggerate its potential as an integrative force for the future.
Most could not reconcile the concept a universal Islamic state or a Turkic common-
wealth with the reality of other countries undergoing development, and as such had
no desire to abandon their affirmation of national sovereignties and identities.
The Jadids viewed the pan-Islamic trends in the early twentieth century not in
terms of political integration, but as an opportunity to establish closer connections
among diverse Muslim peoples. Indeed, they even advanced the idea of uniting
Muslims with the more tolerant European democrats in a joint struggle for freedom
and human rights.
The outbreak of World War I and the subsequent wave of national liberation
movements that swept the Ferghana Valley and other parts of Central Asia in 1916
provoked deep concern among Russian officials and elites over the fate of their
“one and undivided” empire. Soon bankruptcy loomed over Russia, and the failure
of its domestic policy became evident to all.
As this happened, numerous oppressed peoples within Russia’s imperial borders
COLONIAL RULE AND INDIGENOUS RESPONSE 91
appealed to European and American leaders to support their independence from
that empire.
75
One such appeal arose in May 1916 in the name of the “League of
Non-Russians in Russia” ( Liga russkikh inorodtsev). Addressed to U.S. president
Woodrow Wilson, it was signed by representatives of Muslims in Russia.
76
The advance of political, economic, and social breakdown in the Ferghana Valley
and in the Central Asian region overall strongly politicized local reformers. They
now realized that national revival in Turkestan would become possible only when
despotism and colonialism were abolished, parliaments ( majlisi) established, effec-
tive governments built, and
when the doors were opened to modern civilization—
new knowledge, social justice, and national unity were affirmed.
Following the fall of tsarism and the Kerensky Revolution in February 1917,
Ferghana Jadids continued to fight for socio-economic and political liberty, and
for the agenda of the national movement. Thinking that the Bolsheviks supported
their goals, they also supported the October Bolshevik Revolution later in 1917.
But once the Bolsheviks seized power in October 1917, they quickly accused Jadid
leaders of a reactionary “Pan-Islamism” and “bourgeois nationalism.” Notwith-
standing the Jadids’ clear rejection of those positions, which they had repeated in
numerous publications, Lenin and the Bolsheviks began at once to subject them
to brutal repressions. Under such conditions, the best the Jadids could do was to
continue to stand up for what they had affirmed all along.
Notes
1. Referring to the Anglo-Afghan war of 1838–42.
2.
See Z.D. Kastelskaia, Iz istorii Turkestanskogo kraia, Moscow, 1980, pp. 15–16.
3. Istoriia Uzbekistana, Tashkent, 2002, p. 91.
4. M.A.
Т
erentev, Istoriia zavoevania Srednei Azii, vol. 3, Saint Petersburg, 1906,
appendix, p. 3.
5. Istoriia Uzbekistana, p. 91.
6. Kastelskaia, Iz istorii Turkestanskogo kraia, p. 16.
7. Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, vol. 2, Tashkent, 1968, p. 25.
8. Kastelskaia, Iz istorii Turkestanskogo kraia, p. 18.
9. Istoriia Uzbekskoi SSR, p. 30.
10. Ibid., p. 36.
11. Ibid.
12. After two years Khudayar Khan escaped from Orenburg. He lived several years in
Afghanistan, Iran, India, and visited Mecca and Medina. Following a prolonged illness
in 1882 he passed away at the age of fifty-one in the city of Karruh (Afghanistan, Herat
province).
13. A. Egamberdiev and A. Amirsaidov, Istoriia Kokandskogo khanstva (Bibliograficheskii
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