dialoga v Tsentralnoi Azii
,” Materiali konferentsii, Berlin, May 8–19, 2006, p. 41.
69. Rustam Mirzaev, “Kommunikatsionnye vygody dlia mirovogo soobshchestva,” in Velikii
Shelkoviy Put: Realii XXI veka,
Moscow, 2005, www.rustammirzaev.com/book4/4.pdf.
70. Speech of Jin Liqun of Asian Development Bank in Mezhdunarodnyi politicheskii
dialog
, p. 41.
71. Oleg Sidrov, “Novyi staryi Shelkovyi put,” July 4, 2007, http://articles.gazeta.kz/
art.asp?aid=93202.
72. Official documents of the Central Asian regional economic cooperation program of
the Asian Development Bank define it as a steadily evolving partnership of countries and
institutions cooperating to achieve a common goal. The program provides direct assistance to
the Central Asian states in the areas of transport, energy, and trade through cooperation with
international financial institutions. Therefore, it is also characterized as an alliance of multi-
lateral programs and international organizations seeking to promote economic cooperation in
392 BOBOKULOV
Central Asia. Transport is a priority area in the ADB’s strategy and regional cooperation program
for the CAREC countries. “Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation: Harmonization
and Simplification of Transport Agreements, Cross Border Documents and Transport
Regulations,” Asia Development Bank, October 28, 2005, http://www.adb.org/Documents/
Reports/CAREC/Transport-Sector-Reports/CAREC-harmonization.pdf, p. 7.
73. “Central Asia: Increasing Gains from Trade Through Regional Cooperation in Trade
Policy, Transport, and Customs Transit,” Asia Development Bank, Manila, 2006, www.adb.
org/Documents/Reports/ca-trade-policy/, pp. 52–53.
74. “Tsentralnoaziatskoe regionalnoe ekonomicheskoe sotrudnichestvo,” Asia
Development Bank, September 2008, http://www.adb.org/Documents/Translations/Russian/
Regional-Energy-Coop-Strategy-ru.pdf.
75. Bobokulov, “Central Asia,” p. 83.
76. Barry Buzan and Ole Waever, Regions and Powers: The Structure of International
Security
, Cambridge, 2003.
393
Conclusion
S. Frederick Starr
By this point the reader may well be wondering, “What does it all mean?” Does
this large volume somehow “explain” the terrible bloodshed in Osh and Jalalabad
in the summer of 2010, or the “Andijan Events” of 2005, or the IMU’s incursions
into Batken a half-decade earlier, or the bloodshed in Osh in the summer of 1990?
Probably not, if one is looking for simple answers to questions about complex
events. But it surely identifies most, if not all, of the factors in play at the time of
each of these very different moments of conflict. It speaks both to the “global”
changes that have taken place over the past generation, and to the often-trivial
triggering events that could transform a peaceful day into a time of horror. The
summary below also enumerates some of the general themes that link these points
in the present or recent past to the deeper history of the region under study. Sev-
eral of these themes have been evident in the Ferghana Valley for decades, even
centuries. Among them, none is more important than the question of identity as
it is understood by three very distinctive communities, all of which have more in
common with each other than with anyone else further afield. We shall return to
this theme shortly.
The task the editors set for themselves was to present a portrait of the Ferghana
Valley over time, a rich mosaic of the many overlapping realities that define a re-
gion which can, with justice, be considered “the Heart of Central Asia.” Thanks to
the international team of experts whom they assembled, and who toiled alone and
together over some four years, they largely succeeded. Within the space of a few
hundred pages a topic that may earlier have lent itself to clichés and stereotypes
has emerged in its true richness and complexity. Of course, what is offered above
is little more than a telegraphic overview, with many lacunae remaining. Such
issues as communications within the valley, and between it and the outer world,
remain largely untouched here, as do such diverse topics as labor markets, capital
flows into and out of the valley, popular culture, and the evolution of family life.
Given this, it is all the more important to draw whatever conclusions the evidence
at hand allows, to advance hypotheses in other areas and, finally, to venture a look
into the alternative futures that may unfold for this pivotal region.
Beginning at the most general level, it is pertinent to ask what “silver thread,”
if such exists, runs through the entire story presented here? This question, posed
394 CONCLUSION
to the lead authors as they concluded their work, produced a surprising unanim-
ity of views. These experts, drawn from all three countries of the valley, Europe,
and Russia, agree that the underlying theme of their collective enquiry revolves
around identity . By this, they mean identity at the level of individual citizens of
the three countries that comprise the valley, of communities and, finally, of the
valley as a whole. Three aspects of this issue emerged. First, the authors accepted
that the Ferghana Valley has always been a zone of social diversity and pluralism,
with multiple identities existing side by side over the centuries. In this respect, the
present represents a high degree of continuity with the past. Second, it was felt
that identities, whether personal or collective, are all in an extraordinary state of
flux today. It is no exaggeration to say that across the length and breadth of the
Ferghana Valley there is today a kind of “crisis of identity” that imparts a high
degree of precariousness to all social life. Third, as of this writing, it is simply
impossible to predict whether and when new and more stable identities might
emerge, or whether they will come into being through an evolutionary process or
as a result of further crises.
A significant realization that emerged from the research is that we know much
more about identity issues as they exist within the framework of individual states
than we do about identities that overlap two or more states. Both forms of identity
exist in the Ferghana Valley today, with such diverse forces as traders and Sufi
groupings figuring among the valley-wide communicators. Beyond these, of course,
there are other and more radical religious groups that exist on a transnational ba-
sis and oppose all other forms of identity, civic and national as well as religious.
The challenge of the present is to create institutions that can embrace the various
identities prevalent today and provide safety valves that can reduce the attraction
of extremist approaches.
The three states that divide the valley are all seeking to identify the social capital
that can be productively engaged to further the region’s economic modernization.
Each must be credited with forging new forms of national identity, but the price of
this success has been to increase the psychological distance among physically ad-
jacent groups. Just how great that distance has become became cruelly manifest in
April 2010, when Kyrgyz and Uzbeks in the Kyrgyzstan sector brutally attacked each
other, driving from their homes hundreds of thousands of residents, mainly Uzbeks.
In the end, if the benefits of economic modernization are to be secured, these diverse
national groups must somehow work together. It is impossible to predict which tradi-
tions in the Ferghana Valley will survive, and how they will, or will not, be able to
contribute to the region’s social capital. Clearly, it will be important to monitor this
issue in the coming years, and to seek institutional solutions as necessary.
On this somewhat precarious basis, let us now turn once more to the series of
questions we posed at the beginning. First, is there in some sense a “Ferghana”
history and culture, and what is the role of localism within the Ferghana region?
The picture that has emerged is one of a highly developed sense of localism, with
identities and loyalties focused on where one’s family and community is based.
CONCLUSION 395
Yet a larger sense of region always has been present as well. Islam fostered this, of
course, but so did a common way of life, art, music, customs, and even languages
in what was a multi-lingual but integrated culture. The centuries of rule by Kokand
united the urban populations through common tax and administrative structures,
although this was not shared by parts of the valley’s Kyrgyz population. Soviet rule
also imposed a common history on the valley that endured for nearly a century. The
process of collectivization, the transformation of education, and the emancipation
of women were all common experiences, as were forms of resistance. Especially
important was the massive expansion of irrigation and of the related cotton culture
during the 1970s, which can be compared in its depth of impact on the Ferghana
Valley with the Virgin Lands program of the 1960s in Kazakhstan.
Today, our authors agree, these commonalities are breaking down as the valley’s
population divides into three national states and is drawn towards three distant and
very different capitals. This process is comparable to what occurred in early modern
Europe, when national states arose out of the wreckage of the Holy Roman Empire.
The decision by many ethnic Uzbeks in the Kyrgyz and Tajik sectors to learn the
language of their new titular state reflects this development, even as they maintain
their use of Uzbek. Yet the process is very different from early state development in
the West in one fundamental respect, namely, that powerful forces of market-based
development and globalization are everywhere present today.
What is by no means clear to our experts is how far this centrifugal process will
go, and when its apogee will be reached. As it has been through the centuries, trade
is seen as the most likely determining force. The fact that the Ferghana Valley is the
single largest and most densely populated potential market in all Central Asia car-
ries enormous importance for the future. This market cannot be developed without
economic and human bridges between the constituent national zones of the valley,
and between the Ferghana area as a whole and the surrounding region.
A further question the Ferghana Project posed concerns the interplay between
isolation and contact in the life of the valley, past and present. At important peri-
ods stretching sometimes for several centuries, a rich culture of trade and contact
prevailed in the region. At such times populous and rich cities like Kasansai and
Aksikent arose. Archaeological evidence has established that these great centers
maintained close contact with China, India, the Middle East and Europe—in short,
all of the Eurasian land mass.
In his memoirs, the Mughal emperor Babur waxes lyrical over the incomparably
delicious fruits of his native Ferghana Valley. Writing in India, Babur notes grate-
fully that his beloved pears and melons were available in Agra at the local market!
Besides confirming the existence of trade ties in the sixteenth century that cannot
be matched today, Babur’s statement underscores an important truth: namely, that
the periods of greatest effervescence of life and culture in the Ferghana Valley
coincided with the great ages of overland trade along what we misleadingly call
the “Silk Road(s).” Reduced to a formula, one can state that trade and contact
always have enriched Ferghana life and culture, while isolation impoverishes it.
396 CONCLUSION
Against this background one can only hope that the apogee of centrifugal forces
will soon be reached, and that new forces of coordination and integration will
come to the fore.
Closely related to this issue is the question of whether change in the Ferghana
Valley has characteristically been driven from within or without. It is probably
no surprise that our enquiry seems to confirm the prevalence over the centuries
of external forces. True, there have been important periods, such as the era of the
Kokand Khanate (1709–1876), when indigenous factors dominated. At such times,
one may speak of the Ferghana Valley as a subject of political and economic life,
rather than an object acted upon by outsiders. But throughout the subsequent era
and extending until the present, the Ferghana Valley has been shaped and defined
largely from without.
However, this is not to say that its population has been passive or lacking in re-
sourcefulness. Subjected to massive external influences, residents of the valley have
exhibited extraordinary adaptive skills. Rather than merely adopt new procedures,
practices, and norms which the outside world has presented to them, these people
generally have endeavored to adapt them to their preexistent mores. This has had
the effect of preserving many features of Ferghana life that otherwise might have
disappeared. At a deeper level, the process of making such adaptations was itself an
exercise of independence, and doubtless reinforced the notion that there was a local
or regional “we” distinct from the power-wielding “they” from beyond the valley.
The obvious question arises over whether this juxtaposition will long survive into
the post-independence world, or will instead be replaced by new senses of national
identity so strong as to integrate what earlier was separate.
A related and urgent question is where to place non-standard Muslim religious
movements within this spectrum. Surely this is the most urgent issue facing the
Ferghana Valley today (as well as all three governments that rule there), and the
international community as it addresses the problem of social stability in the valley.
Should they be seen as an important though alien presence, or as a local adaptation
of tradition to reckon with new and disorienting circumstances being imposed from
without—or in some sense both?
The few articles that have appeared on the Ferghana Valley in the international
press tend to assume that the worst social problems in the region today arise from
thwarted economic development, that is from stagnation. At some common sense
level this is doubtless true. Our researchers have underscored how economic stag-
nation and poverty, and such related phenomena as the emigration of labor, have
generated social instability. Whenever large swaths of the working-age population
become frustrated with the inability of government to address their needs, they are
ripe for recruitment by extremist religious movements.
Acknowledging this, an important conclusion of this study is that the main
force fueling social unrest in all three sectors of the Ferghana Valley is less stag-
nation than it is rapid, unsettling change. Beginning with a thoroughly traditional
rural existence four generations ago, Ferghana Valley residents have endured the
CONCLUSION 397
replacement of old governing institutions, the collectivization of private property,
the emancipation of women, the massive growth of irrigation and industrial ag-
riculture, the fragmentation of local life into three national sectors, and varying
degrees of re-privatization. In the process of this whirlwind of change, the single
national ideology of communism arose suddenly, served as a battering ram against
Islam and many traditional values, was inculcated into several generations, and
then disappeared as abruptly as it came. To a Ferghana resident, the world has long
been in profound flux.
Yet however numerous and radical, these upheavals proved less than thoroughgo-
ing, in that they still left an extremely high percentage of the population remaining
on the land. What could be more paradoxical than the fact that collective farms,
introduced by Stalin amid great dissension and bloodshed, could, in the Ferghana
Valley, serve as safe zones where many aspects of traditional life and values could
be preserved? This perpetuation of important elements of traditional rural life and
culture may be a boon to ethnographers and collectors of makam. Beyond this, it may
provide the basis of something to fall back on when everything else is in flux; yet at
the same time, this perpetuation doubtless creates tensions that outsiders can scarcely
understand. These take the form of a clash of fundamental values, of identities, and
of expectations. This fracturing can occur in communities and families, among and
within generations, and within individuals, especially younger men and women.
The terrifying pictures of scores of Ferghana Valley women immolating them-
selves in the 1970s and early 1980s attest to the grave economic and health crises
of that time. No less, it shows that the crisis of identities between modernity and
tradition, and between globalization and localism, was already in full flowering in
late Soviet times—and that it particularly affected the lives of women. Thus, the
withering of the age-old art of village needlepoint, or suzane (Persian for needle),
coincided exactly with the rise of television. But thanks to Soviet controls on
urbanization, the life portrayed on television remained inaccessible to the rural
folk of the Ferghana. Most dealt with this by engaging in the normal practice of
adaptation, but tragically some could not endure the tension between the conflict-
ing worlds they faced.
These same tensions exist today, but in yet more acute form. It cannot be denied
that there have been important signs of economic progress in large sections of the
Ferghana Valley, most recently in Uzbekistan’s sector. Yet Ferghanans everywhere
understand that, whatever economic gains they may (or may not) have achieved,
they are modest in comparison with the prosperity and cosmopolitanism that seems
to be flowering in the mushrooming distant capitals.
The obvious conclusion to which these developments point is that religious ex-
tremism has arisen and spread in an environment that combines relative economic
deprivation with disorienting and even dizzying changes occurring simultaneously
at many levels. This gives rise to a kind of psychological dislocation, one prolonged
and deepened by the fact that few, if any, of the normal pillars on which stable lives
might be built are sufficiently strong to sustain people.
398 CONCLUSION
This brings us to a related question raised at the outset of this study: should the
Ferghana Valley be seen today as a center or a periphery. The answer is not simple.
In all three countries, and especially in Uzbekistan, the Ferghana region is consid-
ered a center. Uzbeks note that their literary language took form there, and it was
the site of many other central events in their culture. Acknowledging that the valley
region has at important points in its history been a center in its own right, all three
sectors today are at some distance from their national capitals. Yet in terms of much
decision-making and administration, the Ferghana Valley today is a periphery. Lack-
ing a single center, it can claim no clear institutional identity, whether at the national
or regional level. True, all three national sectors of the valley have their regional
centers, whether Khujand, Osh, or Andijan and Namangan. But the highly central-
ized character of all three countries renders ambiguous the role of these provincial
capitals not only with respect to the territories subordinate to them but, even more,
with respect to the national capitals. This in turn means that the intra-regional affairs
of the Ferghana Valley are managed not within the region itself but in the national
capitals. An important question is whether it is possible to attain the region’s economic
and social potential without some sort of locally based body to coordinate the affairs
of the three national territories that comprise Valley. The experts participating in this
project agree that such a body is very much needed.
As we touch upon questions of public administration in the Ferghana Valley,
we return to another question raised at the outset of this study: has the Ferghana
characteristically been “over-governed” or “under-governed”? The spontaneous
response of many residents, and still more so of foreign observers, would be that
the region generally has suffered from “over-government.” By this they mean that
during Soviet times, if not earlier under Kokand, the state exercised its authority
with a heavy and sometimes ruthless hand. Some extend this complaint to the
present. Indeed, many foreign analysts and more than a few local critics argue that
social problems in all three sectors of the valley arise mainly from what they see as
the clumsy acts of authoritarian governments operating from the distant capitals.
Yet without denying this, such an approach may misstate the issue of over- versus
under-governance. To get at this question, one must ask whether government, at
the level of its actual contact with the citizenry—that is, the most local level—is
effective . In other words, can it address people’s real needs, assure and protect the
vigor of economic and social life locally, and manage crises?
A major hypothesis arising from this study is that, beginning at some point in
the 1970s, the effectiveness of governance in the valley has steadily declined, and
remains at a low level today. To be sure, there are notable exceptions to the rule:
the hard-working hakim, the civic-minded district administrator, the dedicated
and competent head of a new vocational college, and so forth. But centralization
in general and now the centralization of administrative decision-making in three
distant capitals has left the Ferghana region progressively less well-governed. Both
Soviet and post-colonial elites have been concentrated in the republic/national
capitals of Dushanbe, Bishkek, and Tashkent. The issues that preoccupy them
CONCLUSION 399
may be far removed from the realities of daily life in the valley. This can lead to a
steady breakdown of services, whether absolute or relative, even as the claims of
a nominally strong government increase.
It seems to most of our authors that such a progressive breakdown of govern-
ment services has indeed occurred, extending over more than a generation. In late
Soviet times this left political and social space in the valley for someone like the
late criminal master-organizer, Ahmadjon Adilov, to run a virtual state within a
state. Following the collapse of the USSR, the new national leadership was under-
standably concerned above all to protect their fragile new sovereignties and assure
that their countries would survive as independent states. Such a focus naturally left
less energy for addressing the myriad of local issues that constitute the warp and
weft of actual lives across the Ferghana Valley.
Development assistance from abroad, including that provided under the UN
Ferghana Valley initiative in the early 1990s, appears to have exacerbated the prob-
lem. Rather than build up the competence of local administrators, this assistance
focused instead on “civil society.” Foreign funding provided big salaries, Land
Cruisers, and radio telephones to the young staffs of independent organizations,
while older administrators in virtually every area of life across the entire Valley
had to fend for themselves, without training, equipment, or adequate salaries. In-
evitably, many turned to corruption to survive, thus further alienating a populace
already in the throes of a crisis wrought by the many head-spinning changes oc-
curring around them.
This, too, forms an important part of the context for the rise of radical religious
currents at various points in the Ferghana region. No longer able to adapt to dis-
orienting change, some valley residents embraced philosophies that promised a
direct and simple answer to all the problems they faced. Yet, as the reader has seen,
this is only part of the story of religion in the Ferghana Valley today. To be sure,
various currents of radical Islam thrive there. Some of them are so well-organized,
deeply entrenched, and well-funded that they now define the struggle with Muslim
extremism at the national level in each of the three countries.
Careful research on the ground has left many of our authors doubting the ability
of the three countries, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan, to reckon effectively
with the phenomenon of radical Islam. Yet this theme of deepening polarization
and crisis is only one of several narratives that arise from the Ferghana experience.
Another focuses on the fact that the region always has been a land of religious
diversity and hence of tolerance. This, it is claimed, is undergirded by the fact that
the Hanafi school of Muslim jurisprudence that has prevailed there for a millennium
is the most worldly and practical-minded of all the four schools of Muslim law. It
is therefore natural that this doctrine should have been codified there and spread
thence to Afghanistan, Pakistan and on to India. That Babur’s fifteenth-century
upbringing occurred in a Ferghana city, Aksikent, where Muslims and Christians
shared the same cemetery, finds a contemporary parallel in the periodic and cordial
meetings today of Muslim and Christian leaders in nearby Namangan. Ferghana,
400 CONCLUSION
then, is the tolerant heart of the Muslim heartland, not a peripheral zone in need of
instruction or inspiration by any radical new philosophies imported from abroad.
A third narrative stresses the deep history of secular education in the valley, and
its vitality in many sectors of society today. This version stresses the importance of
the Jadid tradition of the early twentieth century, which fed into Soviet secularism
even as its adherents were eventually liquidated by the Communists. In today’s
world it emphasizes the important role for secular education in all three sectors of
the valley, the new vocational high-schools and academic lycées established in the
main cities of the Uzbek sector, the new or expanded institutions of higher education
in Osh and Khujand, and the prevalence of secular values in such diverse areas as
popular entertainment, dress, communications, and sport.
These alternative narratives might lead one to doubt that religious fundamental-
ism will take permanent root in the Ferghana Valley, however vigorous it may be
in some quarters today. Yet the strength of countervailing forces cannot be denied.
The region is certainly contributing talented young men and women to the national
elites of all three countries, but far larger segments of the population are still con-
tending with the difficult realities of daily life in the qishloq or village where they
grew up, and where their forefathers lived. Many young men and women in the
valley feel at home in the emerging global monoculture. Any evening they can be
seen strolling in town or sipping wine together, their ears pressed to cell phones
as they plan the next party or rendezvous. But many more have yet to enter this
world. They might enjoy sports but the main competitions they see are national,
not regional; purely local television is poorly developed or nonexistent, hence
“news” pertains mainly to a larger world of which they do not feel a part. Most of
the best jobs would take them out of their familiar worlds, but they are as yet too
unsure of themselves to leave.
The message to them, then, is that there is indeed a big world out there, yet their
own domain seems stuck on the distant periphery of that world. In the environ-
ment with which they are familiar, threatening centrifugal forces seem to rule, and
the reassuring world of their family’s courtyard, where three generations still live
under one roof, is shrinking.
To what conclusions do the findings of our exploration point, and do our conclu-
sions provide any insights into the future? The experts who have lent their skills
to this study evince a wide range of views, some of them mutually incompatible.
There are optimists among them, but perhaps more pessimists. Significantly, their
adherence to one view or the other corresponds to neither nationality nor citizen-
ship. However, after examining the trends of the past half-century, no one in the
group denies the possibility of a dark outcome. All express concern over the existing
interplay of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of coordination and un-coordination,
of localism and globalism and of competing brands of globalism, of integration
and disintegration. And all acknowledge that the drama being played out within
the three national sectors that exist within the historic boundaries of the valley
will go far toward defining the future of each of the three countries as a whole.
CONCLUSION 401
Our experts affirm that the complex economic and social realities of the Ferghana
Valley will constrain and challenge the elected leaders of Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
and Uzbekistan, and will go far towards prescribing the terms in which leaders
in Tashkent, Dushanbe, and Bishkek will set the agendas for both national and
international policy.
The editors and authors of this volume set themselves the task of better under-
standing the past and present of the Ferghana Valley. They have no crystal ball,
and do not pretend to be able to foresee the future. Still less do they claim the
right or ability to set down policy proposals for their national governments or the
international community. However, their discussions have led them to a few general
thoughts that might profitably be shared.
The great defining event of recent times in the Ferghana Valley has been the
collapse of the Soviet imperial system and its replacement by national states.
Inevitably, the new governments have focused on the monumental task of affirm-
ing their existence as independent states. As in so many post-imperial situations
worldwide, this caused all three countries to look inward and to distance themselves
from their neighbors. All three nations focused on forming crucial ties with major
external powers, at the price of partially ignoring their relations with immediate
neighbors. None of the three—Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan—can be said
yet to have fully consolidated its sovereignty and the new institutions in which it
is embodied. Yet all three appear to have passed successfully through their difficult
birth process.
Like all countries, the three states that share the valley still face grave challenges.
But the majority of our participating scholars believe that the most dangerous period
of their formation may have passed, or that this might soon be the case. As these
countries reach this important marker, it may be possible to focus on Ferghana
issues in a way that has not been readily possible heretofore.
Among these issues, none poses more formidable challenges than the manage-
ment of borders and border posts and of the water and hydroelectric power of the
rivers in the Naryn Darya–Kara Darya–Syr Darya basin. For more than a decade,
pessimists have predicted the outbreak of armed conflict over those issues. But in
spite of the sharpest differences, and of many pointed threats, this has not happened.
Perhaps this is due to the fact that the national leaders understand the dangers that
an utter breakdown would pose. Perhaps it is due to the fact that the three peoples
know each other far better than outsiders think they do. But for nearly two decades
they have always stopped short of the brink, finally pulling back after periods of
great tension.
To move beyond the mere absence of war to a climate in which enduring solu-
tions might be found will require immense political, diplomatic, technical, and
human skills. Above all, it will call for higher levels of cooperation across national
borders. Members of the international community have repeatedly offered their
services in building a structure in which such cooperation can occur. Some have
moved beyond lofty rhetoric to deal more practically with the core issues of secu-
402 CONCLUSION
rity and money. All three regional governments, including their technical experts,
diplomats, and elected leaders, should welcome such help. But in the end, these
are matters for the three countries themselves to decide. International players can
provide mediation, technical assistance, and financial aid. But the will to move
towards practical solutions must come from the regional states themselves. This
will arise only after some foundation of trust has been established.
Trust arises not from ringing declarations but from successfully working together
on less vexing issues. At present, no institutional setting exists for such collabora-
tion beyond rare meetings at the highest levels. A more practical approach might
be to establish some kind of “Ferghana Valley Coordination Council.” Comprised
of regional governors, relevant ministers, and a few public representatives, such
a council should meet frequently and without undue publicity. Its sessions should
rotate among venues located within the three national sectors of the valley. Its
task should be to serve as a low-keyed clearinghouse for trilateral issues affecting
the valley, identifying matters of concern, assembling relevant information, and
framing alternative solutions for governmental action.
Such a Ferghana Valley Coordination Council should concentrate on issues
affecting daily life, excluding nothing as too trivial for its attention: athletic com-
petitions, joint cultural endeavors, family contacts, educational exchanges, and the
like. In the larger scheme of things such matters may seem modest, but they are far
from insignificant. Our study suggests that in recent decades the Ferghana Valley
region has suffered from marginalization (as a peripheral zone) and isolation. This
has contributed to a certain atomization in society, and the sense that real life is
somehow to be found elsewhere. The kind of initiatives suggested here may cre-
ate a counterweight to these trends, and in a manner that would dilute the sense of
alienation that has been the seed-ground for extremism. It is entirely compatible
with the emergence of strong national states and normal international borders.
If it proves successful in these endeavors, the Ferghana Valley Coordination
Council might then consider questions concerning the improvement of local ser-
vices, regional transport and trade, and eventually even more complex issues such
as foreign investment. With no pretense of being a legislative body, the Council
would be a sensor of public concerns and, to repeat, a clearinghouse for trilateral
issues. Its goal would be to foster not integration but coordination. Secure modern
borders, far from being enemies of coordination, should be seen as prerequisites
for its attainment.
Since 1991, the international community has poured millions of dollars into
projects in the Ferghana Valley. Some of these have been successful but a far larger
number have not, and for a simple reason: too often projects have arisen not from
local perceptions of need but from the judgments of outside experts. Disabled by this
birth defect, these projects often have been undertaken not with local authorities but
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