9.12
SUMMARY
This chapter has dealt with ways of changing and enriching the vocabulary. We have seen that jargon
created for a specialised linguistic field may seep into the mainstream vocabulary. We have also seen that
the vocabulary may be enlarged by associating new meanings with existing word-forms. This may involve
metaphorical extensions of meaning, widening, narrowing, amelioration or pejoration. Slang too is an
important source of lexical innovation: non-standard meanings may come to be associated with wordforms
of the mainstream language.
Conversely, the same meaning may be kept but the word-form representing it may be changed, usually by
shortening. This takes a variety of forms such as clipping whereby a word-form is shortened, back-
formation whereby new lexical terms are created by removing affixes, and blends produced by joining the
rumps of two word-forms.
The words of a language are used by speakers to convey meanings in a social context. So, inevitably
social factors impinge on the lexicon. Sayings and slogans encapsulating a shared value system are turned
into clichés which trigger socially conditioned reflexes. Euphemisms are used to smooth over reality where
its jagged edges as expressed by the normal non-euphemistic terms are too disconcerting. This may be done
for the best of reasons or for sinister purposes.
EXERCISES
1. With the help of a good dictionary, find out the methods by which the following words were formed.
laze, con, temp, deli, porn, pram, nappy, disco, cobol, leotard, wasp
(of the human variety in
America), laser, VATman, GI, Frisco (San Francisco) and Philly (Philadelphia).
Find one more word formed using each of these methods.
2. If you call someone ‘a queer’ you are not only referring to their sexual orientation, but also doing so in
a denigrating manner because the word queer has very negative connotations. Find two other words
which you know to be offensive to other people. Is there a way of communicating effectively without
using these offensive words?
3. Like words, affixes can have both referential and cognitive meaning.
a. Find at least six words with the suffix -ess as in baroness, manageress, priestess and mistress.
b. Comment on both the cognitive and connotative meaning of words formed with this suffix. Bear in
mind the fact that the connotations of a morpheme can change over time as social values change.
4. Look up in a good etymological dictionary the entries for the words below and comment on the
semantic changes which they have undergone:
a. villa, village, villain and -ville (as in Hopkinsville, Madisonville, Louisville in Kentucky; Nashville
in Tennessee and Jacksonville in Florida).
b. ace, boor (Boer), meat, garbage, lad, kill and lavatory.
5.
ENGLISH WORDS 131
a. Provide one example of semantic narrowing and one of semantic widening.
b. Give one fresh example of a lexical item whose use is motivated by taboo. What kind of taboo is
involved?
c. If possible, find out from a person from another culture the kinds of taboo that influence lexical
choices in their culture.
6.
a. Study the following text and comment on the word-formation method used in the jargon.
The Greenfreeze fridge, as it will be known, is unlike just about every other fridge made
commercially in the last generation. It uses a mixture of propane and butane to cool it and not
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), those great destroyers of the ozone layer, or their second generation
replacements, the hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) which are even more dangerous in the short run.
(John Vidal ‘The Big Chill’, The Guardian, 19 November 1992)
b. Find another short, jargon-ridden passage exemplifying lexical innovation. Comment on the method
of word-formation used in the passage you have chosen.
7. What do the following catch-phrases mean? What kinds of connotation do they have? In what
circumstances are they used?
a. I am not just a pretty face
b. Public enemy number one
c. I am down, but not out
d. His master’s voice
132 WORDS GALORE
Chapter 10
A lexical mosaic: sources of English vocabulary
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