English Words

6.8
SUMMARY
In this chapter we have explored the kinds of lexical information that need to be included in the lexicon. We
have established that the lexicon needs to contain semantic, phonological, morphological, syntactic
properties. Word-formation interacts strongly with processes that apply in the other modules of the
grammar since they all need access to various kinds of information about morphemes and words found in
the lexicon.
Most of the chapter has been given over to characterising the relationship between morphological and
phonological rules found in the lexicon using the multi-layered theory of lexical morphology. (For further
exploration of this model see van der Hulst and Smith 1982a, 1982b, 1982c, Katamba 1989 and Goldsmith
1990.)
We have seen that affix morphemes play a pivotal role since the division of the lexicon into strata is
based on the phonological properties of affixes. Affixes are put on two strata depending on whether they are
phonologically neutral or non-neutral. This enables us to handle simply several important morphological
phenomena such as the sequencing of morphemes in words, the relative productivity of morphemes, and
blocking.
In the course of the discussion we re-examined the role of the morpheme as the minimal unit used to
signal meaning. We saw that some morphemes have very elusive meanings and we considered a
distributional approach as a possible way of characterising the morpheme.
Finally, we concluded by briefly contrasting the idiosyncratic nature of lexical phonological rules with
the predictable nature of phrasal rules that affect words after they have been processed through the syntax.
EXERCISES
1.
a. What kinds of information must the lexicon contain?
b. Explain why the lexicon must be much more than a long list of words that are found in a language.
What kinds of generalisations should be captured in the lexicon?
80 A LEXICON WITH LAYERS

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2.
a. In the light of the discussion in this chapter and earlier discussion in 
Chapter 5
, show how
phonological rules interact with morphological rules.
b. Show why a theory of language that insisted on keeping morphological rules segregated from
phonological rules would miss some important generalisations about English. Back up your
arguments with fresh examples.
3.
a. What is the meaning of pec- and mut- in the following:
pecunious
impecunious
pecuniary
peculate
peculiar
commute
immutable
mutant
permutation
mutate
b. Should pec and mut be recognised as root morphemes in contemporary English? Justify your
answer.
4.
a. Use the data below to argue that the two distinct -al suffix morphemes must be recognised.
acquit
tal
arrival
referra
l
betraya
l
refusal
residua
l
perusa
l
retriev
al
disper
sal
reversa
l
commi
ttal
remov
al
archit
ectura
l
medici
nal
intelle
ctual
instru
mental
ancestr
al
univers
al
habitu
al
concep
tual
presid
ential
comme
rcial
origina
l
anecdo
tal
In your analysis, pay particular attention to the following:
(i) the meaning of the suffix;
(ii) the word-class of the bases to which it attaches;
(iii) the word-class of the resulting word;
(iv) the effect, if any, that the -al suffix has on stress. 
b. In the light of your analysis, at which lexical stratum or strata should -al be put?
5. Study the following words and answer the questions that follow:
a.
bagful
d.
journalese
g.
daily
cupful
computerese
monthly
jugful
officialese
quarterly
ENGLISH WORDS 81

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plateful
telegraphese
weekly
b.
childhood
e.
friendship
h.
arabesque
knighthood
guardianship
grotesque
parenthood
keepership
picturesque
priesthood
membership
Turneresque
c.
complimentary
f.
absenteeism
i.
decorative
elementary
colonialism
generative
evolutionary
expansionism
native
inflationary
fatalism
productive
revolutionary
imperialism
speculative
a. Segment each word into morphemes.
b. List the suffixes together with their meanings and their historical sources. As we have seen in this
chapter, the distinction between native and borrowed morphemes is important in English although
most speakers are not explicitly aware of it. This task is intended to make you examine this
distinction consciously. (Looking up the suffixes in an etymological dictionary is recommended.)
c. Make a phonemic transcription of the first two words in each group. Indicate the syllable that receives
the most prominent stress in the word.
e. What effect on stress, if any, does each suffix you have identified have?
f. At what stratum is each one of the suffixes you have identified found? What is your evidence?
g. Is there any correlation between the stratum at which a suffix is found and its historical origin?
82 A LEXICON WITH LAYERS

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Chapter 7
Should English be spelt as she is spoke?