Access to knowledge
As we saw in chapter 1, by the beginning of the nineteenth cen-
tury, Britain had become the world’s leading industrial and trading
nation. Its population of 5million in 1700 more than doubled
by 1800, and during that century no country could equal its eco-
nomic growth, with a gross national product rising, on average, at
2 per cent a year.
14
Most of the innovations of the Industrial Rev-
olution were of British origin: the harnessing of coal, water and
steam to drive heavy machinery; the development of new materi-
als, techniques and equipment in a wide range of manufacturing
industries; and the emergence of new means of transportation.
By 1800, the chief growth areas, in textiles and mining, were
producing a range of manufactured goods for export which led
to Britain being called the ‘workshop of the world’. Names such
as Thomas Newcomen, James Watt, Matthew Boulton, Richard
Trevithick, George Stephenson, Charles Wheatstone, Michael
Faraday, Humphry Davy, Thomas Telford and Henry Bessemer
reflect the British achievement of that time.
The linguistic consequences of this achievement were far-
reaching. The new terminology of technological and scientific
advance had an immediate impact on the language, adding tens of
thousands of words to the English lexicon. But, more important,
the fact that these innovations were pouring out of an English-
speaking country meant that those from abroad who wished to
learn about them would need to learn English – and learn it
well – if they wished to benefit. Especially after the French Wars
(1792–1815), missions of inquiry arrived in Britain from several
continental countries, foreign workers were seconded to British
factories, and many Britons came to earn a good living abroad,
teaching the new methods of industrial production.
14
Parker (1986: 391).
80
Why English? The cultural foundation
The magnet of opportunity in Britain attracted several inventors
from the Continent, who subsequently became leaders in their
field. Here are three famous instances, from the beginning, the
middle, and the end of the nineteenth century. The civil engineer
Marc Isambard Brunel was born in France, but fled the Revolution
to the USA, before moving to England in 1799. William Siemens,
the steel manufacturer, was born in Prussia, but settled in London
in the 1840s. And Guglielmo Marconi was born in Italy (though
his mother was Irish), but received little encouragement there for
his experiments, and from 1896 worked in London, where he
filed his first patent.
It was not long before similar developments were taking place
in America which, by the end of the century, had overtaken Britain
as the world’s fastest growing economy. There is a correspond-
ing litany of US inventors who maintained the momentum of
the Industrial Revolution in Europe and began to rival their
European counterparts in fame, as such names as Benjamin
Franklin, Thomas Edison, Samuel Morse and Robert Fulton sug-
gest. Gradually, America in turn acted as a magnet for European
scholars, such as glaciologist Jean-Louis Agassiz (in 1846), elec-
trical engineer Nikola Tesla (in 1884), and industrial chemist Leo
Baekeland (in 1889). When the American research is added to
the British, it is possible to suggest that about half of the influ-
ential scientific and technological output in the period between
1750 to 1900 would have been written in English. If we analyse
the entries in the
Chambers concise dictionary of scientists
(a book
which has been praised for its attention to internationalism), we
find that 45per cent of the people from this period were working
routinely in an English-language environment, and several more
were collaborating with English-speaking scholars.
15
The nature of the Industrial Revolution would have been very
different if it had not been supported by developments which
made the new knowledge widely available. Indeed, some of the
technology was itself critical in helping the dissemination of ideas.
In particular, steam technology revolutionized printing, enabling
15
Millar,
et al
. (1989).
81
ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE
the introduction of the high-speed rotary press and the Linotype
machine for casting and setting type, and generating an un-
precedented mass of publications in English – technical manuals
and leaflets, books of instructions, specialized and popular pe-
riodicals, advertisements, and proceedings of learned societies.
And as the innovations made their impact on America, the
amount of expository material in the English language increased
dramatically.
Access to the new knowledge was also much helped by progress
in transportation. During the first half of the nineteenth century,
the growth of new transport systems, especially the steamship and
the railway, began the process of bringing people closer together.
During the second half, the growth of new communication sys-
tems, especially the telegraph and telephone, made contact be-
tween people virtually instantaneous. In 1815, it took four days
for news of the Battle of Waterloo to reach London. In 1915,
news from the Gallipoli campaign in the Dardanelles was arriving
by the hour.
Increasingly rapid and robust methods of transportation trans-
formed the availability of the products of the Industrial Revolu-
tion. New methods of mass production demanded new means of
mass transportation. In particular, as far as the language was con-
cerned, the distribution of daily newspapers on a large scale would
not have been possible without a railway system and, later, a road
network capable of carrying increasingly heavy vehicles. Another
major step was the arrival of new sources of energy. Edwin L.
Drake bored the first oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859, and by
1880 the Standard Oil Company, under John D. Rockefeller and
his associates, was controlling the refining of over 90 per cent of
all oil produced in the USA.
Standard Oil was but one of several giant organizations to
emerge in the USA during the later decades of the century,
nurtured by the huge natural resources of the country and the
demands of its rapidly growing population. Another was
the newspaper empire of William Randolph Hearst. A third was
the manufacturing, banking, and transportation empire of fi-
nancier John Pierpont Morgan. By the turn of the century his
banking house had become one of the world’s most powerful
82
Why English? The cultural foundation
financial institutions, helping to finance the supply and credit
needs of the Allies in the First World War, and much of the cost
of post-war European reconstruction. The only country to have
developed comparable financial and industrial strengths, during
the last quarter of the nineteenth century, was Germany; but these
were to disappear following defeat in 1918, leaving the ground
clear for American economic domination.
The early nineteenth century had seen the rapid growth of the
international banking system, especially in Germany, Britain, and
the USA. The new organizations supported the fortunes of the
developing industrial companies, handled government securities,
and facilitated the growth of world trade and investment. In par-
ticular, the less wealthy countries of Europe, as well as the new
colonies further afield, urgently needed to attract foreign invest-
ment. Firms such as Rothschilds and Morgans grew in response to
these needs, and London and New York became the investment
capitals of the world.
In 1914, Britain and the USA were together investing over
£
4,500 thousand million abroad – three times as much as France
and almost four times as much as Germany. The resulting ‘eco-
nomic imperialism’, as it was later called, brought a fresh dimen-
sion to the balance of linguistic power. ‘Access to knowledge’ now
became ‘access to knowledge about how to get financial backing’.
If the metaphor ‘money talks’ has any meaning at all, those were
the days when it was shouting loudly – and the language in which
it was shouting was chiefly English.
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