Encyclopedia of Islam

Further reading: Ahmad Atif Ahmad, Structural Inter-

relations of Theory and Practice: A Study of Six Works 

of Medieval Islamic Jurisprudence (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 

2006); Laleh Bakhtiar, ed., Encyclopedia of Islamic 

Law: A Compendium of the Major Schools (Chicago: 

Kazi Publications, 1996); Wael B. Hallaq, A History of 

Islamic Legal Theories: An Introduction to Sunni usul al-

fiqh (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); 

Fazlur Rahman, Islam, 2d ed. (Chicago: University of 

Chicago Press, 1979), 100–116; Bernard Weiss, The 

Spirit of Islamic Law (Athens: University of Georgia 

Press, 1998); Muhammad Qasim Zaman, The Ulama in 

Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change (Princeton, 

N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2002).