Education of the republic of uzbekistan ferghana state university

3.2. STYLISTIC FUNCTIONS OF CONVERSATIONAL (LOW-FLOWN) WORDS.
Here we refer colloquial words, general slang words (interjargon), special slang words (social and professional jargons), dialectal words and vulgarisms. Some linguists differentiate slang and jargon, but the difference is vague and is practically irrelevant for stylistics. Generally, colloquial words according to their usage may be divided into three big groups:
1) literary colloquial,
2) familiar colloquial:
3) low colloquial.
According to the relations between their form and meaning, all colloquial words may be divided into three subgroups:
a) words which are based on the change of their phonetic or morphological form without changing their lexical and stylistic meaning:
b) words which are the result of the change of both their form and lexico-stylistic meaning;
c) words which resulted from the change of their lexical and/or lexico-stylistic meaning without changing their form.
The first subgroup comprises such varieties of word-form change as:
a) clipping (shortening): serge - sergeant, caff - cafeteria;
b) contamination of a word combination: leggo - let's go, kinda - kind of, c'mon - come on; [gimme, dunno, gonna, wanna]
c) contamination of grammatical forms: I'd go, there's, we're going.
These words have no lexico-stylistic paradigms. They possess denotative meaning only. Within the second group of colloquialisms, we may distinguish two varieties of the word-form change leading to the alteration of its lexico-stylistic meaning:
a) the change of the grammatical form which brings the change of the lexico-stylistic meaning: heaps - very many, a handful — a person causing a lot of trouble;
b) the change of the word-building pattern which causes the emergence of another lexico-stylistic meaning through affixation: oldie, tenner, clippie;
— compounding: backroom boy, dip-joint:
— conversion: to bag, teach-in;
— telescopy: swellegant, flush, fruice;
— shortening and affixation: Archie (Archibald);
— compounding and affixation: strap-hanger, arty-crafty,
All these words form a iexico-stylistic paradigm as they have synonyms among neutral and literary words and are characterised by various connotations while giving additional characteristics to the denotatum.
The third subgroup of colloquial words is the most numerous and comprises: a) words with emotive-expressive meaning only: oh, bach, ah as well as word combinations having a special expressive function: / never, Good (Great) heavens, God forbid; b; words and word combinations having both connotative and denotative meaning where the former one prevails: terribly, you don't say so, did he really;
c) words in which denotative and connotative meanings interplay: bunny — a waitress, colt-team - young team;
d) words in which denotative meaning in certain contextual conditions gives rise to a new connotative meaning: affair - business, to have an affair- to be in love, beggar - poor person, lucky beggar- lucky person;
e) words denotative and connotative meanings of which are completely different from their former meanings: chanter (poetic) - a singer; chanter (col.) - a person who sells horses at the market.
Slang is composed of highly colloquial words whose expressiveness and novelty make them emphatic and emotive as compared to their neutral synonyms.We can distinguish two varieties of slang: general slang (interjargon) and special slangs (social as well as professional jargons). Some of the former slangisms may enter the colloquial or even the neutral layer of the vocabulary (phone, flu, sky-scraper). Novelty is the most impressive feature of slang. As it disappears, they lose their expressiveness.
Vulgarisms are the words which are not generally used in public. However, they can be found in modern literature nowadays, though formerly they were tabooed or marked by the initial letters only.
Dialectal words ('ud - would, 'im - him, 'aseen - have seen, canna - cannot, dinna-don't, sportin - sporting) are used to intensify the emotive and expressive colouring of speech which is primarily determined by the peculiarities of social or geographical environment.
Conversational words of all kinds are widely used for stylistic purposes. There are four speech spheres in which they are mostly largely used: everyday speech, newspaper language, poetry, and fiction.
In newspaper language, colloquial words and word combinations, and sometimes general slang words, are used to give an expressive evaluation of facts and events. In modern poetry, words of all layers are most widely used. Lyrical poetry allows the usage of various non-poetic words to create the atmosphere of sincerity, confidence etc. Slang words in fiction (mostly in dialogues) add to the informality and emotiveness of the character's speech alongside with indicating social and speech peculiarities of the personages.The actual process of borrowing is complex and involves many usage events (i.e. instances of use of the new word). Generally, some speakers of the borrowing language know the source language too, or at least enough of it to utilize the relevant word. They (often consciously) adopt the new word when speaking the borrowing language, because it most exactly fits the idea they are trying to express. If they are bilingual in the source language, which is often the case, they might pronounce the words the same or similar to the way they are pronounced in the source language. For example, English speakers adopted the word garage from French, at first with a pronunciation nearer to the French pronunciation than is now usually found. Presumably, the very first speakers who used the word in English knew at least some French and heard the word used by French speakers, in a French-speaking context.Those who first use the new word might use it at first only with speakers of the source language who know the word, but at some point they come to use the word with those to whom the word was not previously known. To these speakers the word may sound 'foreign'. At this stage, when most speakers do not know the word and if they hear it think it is from another language, the word can be called a foreign word. There are many foreign words and phrases used in English such as bon vivant(French), mutatis mutandis (Latin), and Fahrvergnuegen (German).
However, in time more speakers can become familiar with a new foreign word or expression. The community of users of this word can grow to the point where even people who know little or nothing of the source language understand, and even use, the novel word themselves. The new word becomes conventionalized: part of the conventional ways of speaking in the borrowing language. At this point we call it a borrowing or loanword.It should be noted that not all foreign words do become loanwords; if they fall out of use before they become widespread, they do not reach the loanword stage.)Conventionalization is a gradual process in which a word progressively permeates a larger and larger speech community, becoming part of ever more people's linguistic repetoire. As part of its becoming more familiar to more people, a newly borrowed word gradually adopts sound and other characteristics of the borrowing language as speakers who do not know the source language accommodate it to their own linguistic systems. In time, people in the borrowing community do not perceive the word as a loanword at all. Generally, the longer a borrowed word has been in the language, and the more frequently it is used, the more it resembles the native words of the language.
English has gone through many periods in which large numbers of words from a particular language were borrowed. These periods coincide with times of major cultural contact between English speakers and those speaking other languages. The waves of borrowing during periods of especially strong cultural contacts are not sharply delimited, and can overlap. For example, the Norse influence on English began already in the 8th century A.D. and continued strongly well after the Norman Conquest brought a large influx of Norman French to the language.It is part of the cultural history of English speakers that they have always adopted loanwords from the languages of whatever cultures they have come in contact with. There have been few periods when borrowing became unfashionable, and there has never been a national academy in Britain, the U.S., or other Englishspeaking countries to attempt to restrict new loanwords, as there has been in many continental European countries.Etymologically the vocabulary of any language consists of two groups – the native words and the borrowed words. E.g., in its 15 century long history recorded in written manuscripts the English language happened to come in long and close contact with several other languages, mainly Latin, French and Old Norse (or Scandinavian). The etymological linguistic analysis showed that the borrowed stock of words is lager than the native stock of words. Uzbek language, as well as English has been in long and close touch with other languages, mainly Arabic, Persian, Russian.A native word is a word which belongs to the original stock. An English native word is a word which belongs to Anglo-Saxon origin. To the native words we include words from Common Germanic language and from Indo-European stock.A borrowed word, a loan word or borrowing is a word taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape, spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the language.
The native words in English are further subdivided by diachronic linguistics into those of the Indo-European stock and those of Common Germanic origin. The native words of Uzbek language belongs to Turkic language family, the origin of which based on Altay-Yenisey manuscripts. It has been noticed that native words readily fall into definite semantic groups. Among them we find terms of kinship: father-ота, mother-она, son-угил, daughter-киз, brother-ака etc; words naming the most important objects and phenomena of nature: Sun-куёш, moon-ой, star-юлдуз, wind-шамол, water-сув; names of animals and birds: bull-хукиз, cat-мушук, goose-гоз; parts of human body: arm-кул, ear-кулок, eye-куз, heart –юрак
Words belonging to the subsets of the native word – stock are for the most part characterized by a wide range of lexical and grammatical valency, high frequency value and a developed polysemy; they are often monosyllabic, show great word – building power and enter a number of set expressions, e. g., watch DE Weccan is one of the 500 most frequent English words. It may be used as a verb in more than ten different sentence patterns, with or without object and adverbial modifiers and combined with different classes of words.
Use of some English borrowings in Uzbek literary texts.As the process of borrowing is mostly connected with the appearance of new notions which the loan words serve to express, it is natural that the borrowing is seldom limited to one language. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words.
Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind’s cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone, concert, duet, opera, piano and many more.The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international word-stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithms, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic, code, graph, microelectronics etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian, Uzbek and several other languages.
To adapt means to make or undergo modifications in function and structure so as to be fit for a new use, a new environment or a new situation. Being adaptive system the vocabulary is constantly adjusting itself to the changing requirements and conditions of human communications and cultural and other needs. This process of self-regulation of the lexical system is a result of overcoming contradictions between the state of the system and the demands it has to meet. The speaker chooses from the existing stock of words such words that in his opinion can adequately express his thought and feeling. It is important to stress that the development is not confined to coining new words on the existing patterns but in adapting the very structure of the system to its changing functions.
According to F. de Saussure synchronic linguistics deals with systems and diachronic linguistic – with single elements, and the two methods must be kept strictly apart. A language system then should be studied as something fixed and unchanging, whereas we observe the opposite: it is constantly changed and readjusted as the need arises. The concept of adaptive systems overcomes this contradiction and permits us to study language as a constantly developing but systematic whole. The adaptive system approach gives a more adequate account of the systematic phenomena of a vocabulary by explaining more facts about the functioning of words and providing more relevant generalizations, because we can take into account the influence of extra – linguistic reality. The study of the vocabulary as an adaptive system reveals the pragmatic essence of the communication process, i. e. the way language is used to influence the addressee. There is a considerable difference of opinion as to the type of system involved, although the majority of linguists nowadays agree that the vocabulary should be studied as a system. Our present state of knowledge is, however, insufficient to present the whole of the vocabulary as one articulated system, so we deal with it as if it were a set of interrelated systems.The language of independent Uzbekistan is contributing to the world
languages enriching them with new notions: kurash, chap, halol, chala, (sport terms), bazar, sumalak etc.
To sum up this brief treatment of loan words it is necessary to stress that in studying borrowed words a linguist cannot be content with establishing the source, the date of penetration, the semantic sphere to which the word belonged and the circumstances of the process of borrowing. All these are very important, but one should also be concerned with the changes the new language system into which the loan word penetrates causes in the word itself, and on the other hand, look for the changes occasioned by the newcomer in the English vocabulary, when in finding its way into the new language it pushed some of its lexical neighbors aside. In the discussion above we have tried to show the importance of the problem of conformity with the patterns typical of the receiving language and its semantic needs.
In it`s turn we can observe English borrowings in literary texts. According to some researches penetration of English borrowings into Uzbek began from the beginning of XXth century. The first English borrowings can be observed in the works of jadids in the beginning of XX century. One of the well-known representatives of jaded trend Mahmudkhodja Behbudiy used some of the following borrowings in his works: вокзал .

• 
  Stylistic classification of the English language vocabulary.
  
• 
  It is important to classify the English vocabulary from a stylistic point of view because some SDs are based on the interplay of different lexical components and aspects of a word. The word stock of any language may be presented as a system elements of which are interconnected, interrelated and yet interdependent. Lexicology suggests many ways of classifying any vocabulary but for the purpose of stylistic analysis we may represent the whole word stock of English language as the domain divided into two major layers: the literary layer, the neutral layer
  
• 
  and the colloquial layer.
  
• 
  The literary and the colloquial layer contain a number of subgroups, all of which have a certain property, characteristic of the layer on the whole, that is called an aspect. Thus we say ‘the aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character, the aspect of the colloquial layer is its lively spoken character. Both peculiarities make the first layer more or less stable and the latter –unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character which means that it is unrestricted in use.The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:
  
• 
  Terms
  

• 
  Poetical words
  

• 
  Archaic words
  

• 
  Foreignisms and barbarisms· Literary nonce-words or neologisms
  

Colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups:
- professionalisms
- slang
- jargonisms
- dialectisms
- vulgarisms
- colloquial nonce-words
The literary layer consists of the words accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary, without local or dialectal character.While the colloquial layer is often limited to a definite language community or confined to a specific locality where it circulates.
The literary stratum of English vocabulary is used in both oral and written speech. Most literary words are neutral. But there are certain groups of literary words whose bookish character imbues them with a distinct coloring. Hence, they are frequently called “learned words”. For example: emolument, joyance, gladsome, bellicose, judicial, etc.
The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term: “standard English vocabulary”.Other groups are regarded as consequently special literary and special colloquial vocabularies.
Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used both in literary and the colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy, they are very prolific in production of a new meaning and in generating new stylistic variations. Neutral words are characterized by the following points:
- they can be used in any style of speech without causing a special stylistic effect
- they can be used not only in written speech which abounds in literary words but also in colloquial speech without causing any stylistic effect
- they are generally devoid of any emotional meaning, unless special means are employed for this purpose.
Neutral words have a monosyllabic character as in the progress of development from Old English to Modern English most of the parts of speech lost their distinguishing suffixes. This phenomenon has led to the development of conversion as the most productive means of word-building or wordderivation where a word is formed because of a shift in the part of speech. Unlike all other groups of words the neutral words have NO SPECIAL STYLISTIC COLORING.
Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. One can always tell a literary word from a colloquial one. The reason for this lies in certain objective features of the literary layer of words, that is why literary unite always stand in opposition to colloquial units, forming pairs of synonyms.