Didactics of Translation: Text in Context

Chapter II

1. 
   Chau’s use of the designation “Translation Studies” is different from that of Holmes’s (1972) since whereas the latter includes Translation Teaching within Translation Studies in general, Chau does not.
   
2. 
   Some representatives of this linguistic trend according to Chau are C.F. Hockett (1954) who “proposes immediate constituents as basic units of translation”, Vinay and Darbelnet (1958) who make “a predominantly formal linguistic comparison of French and English”, and Catford (1965).
   
3. 
   Chau cites K-E Heidolph (1966), Pike (1967), R. Crymes (1968), S. Dik (1968),
   

R. Harweg (1968) and R. Hassan (1968).

4. 
   According to Koller, one has to make the distinction between the concepts of equivalence and correspondence. The latter belongs to the field of contrastive linguistics and involves the comparison of two language systems and the contrastive description of their similarities and differences. In short, it relies on language. In contrast, equivalence deals with “equivalent items in specific ST-TT pairs and contexts” and thus relies on parole (Koller 1979: 176-91). Moreover, Koller points out that knowledge of correspondences indicates competence in the foreign language, whereas knowledge of equivalences indicates competence in translation.
   
5. 
   According to Catford, translation shifts are “formal changes that occur during the transfer process (Catford 1965: 71 in Chesterman 1986). These shifts are divided into two major types: level shifts and category shifts. While the first refers to grammar, lexis, phonology and graphology, the second refers to units (sentences, clauses, noun-phrases, words, morphemes), structure (word-order, etc. of units), class (nominal group or verbal group, etc.) and system (the closed set of alternatives such as singular-plural)
   

Level shifts involve shifts from grammar to lexis and vice-versa. For example: ST: This text is intended for…
TT: Le présent manuel s’adresse à…
“This”, a deictic item in grammar, has as its equivalent an article + a lexical adjective.
Category shifts include unit shifts, structure shifts, class shifts and system shifts:

• 
  Unit shifts: Concerning this sub-type of shifts, Catford says that “usually, but not always, there is sentence-sentence equivalence, but in the course of a text, equivalence may shift up and down the rank-scale, often being established at ranks lower than the sentence” (Catford in Chesterman1989 :73-74). Here is an example of unit shifts:
  

ST: He said that he would come. (a clause) TT: Il a annoncé son voyage. ( a noun phrase)

• 
  Structure shifts:
  

ST: Jack wrote a book. (SVO)
TT (Arabic): Kataba djak risa:latan “wrote Jack a letter”

• 
  Class shifts:
  

ST: a white house (Modifier-Head)
TT (French): une maison blanche (Head-Qualifier)

• 
  system shifts:
  

advice des conseils (French).
news des nouvelles (French).