6.34
Power and Energy
in Periodic Waveforms
Solution
(i) The rms value of a triangular current with a peak value of
I
p
A will be
I
p
3
(see Example 6.5-3)
This must
be equal to the rms value of i(
t).
I
rms
A
=
+
+
=
2
3
2
1 5
2
3 1
2
2
2
.
.
∴ =
×
=
I
p
A
3 1
3 5 37
.
.
(ii) No. The period over which averaging is done in the calculation of rms value is 500 times the
period of sin 500
p
t. That is,
T
=
500
×
4ms
=
2 s.
Approximating average power by cyclic average power is valid only if the waveform lasts
for duration much longer than the period over which averaging is carried out in cyclic average
calculation. This is the reason why the frequency information does not figure in the expressions
for
P and rms values. The effective value of a waveform does not depend on frequency provided
the waveform remains applied to the circuit for much longer than its period.
6.7
Summary
• Sinusoidal waveforms are of great importance to electrical and electronic circuits due to the
following reasons: (i) They preserve their waveshape in linear circuits. (ii) They render the voltage
levels in electrical and electronic systems flexible so that optimisation of sub-system performance
in various parts of the system by choosing a suitable voltage level in that part of the system
becomes possible. Transformers help us to realise this voltage flexibility. (iii)
Periodic non-
sinusoidal waveforms as well as a broad class of aperiodic waveforms can be expressed as a sum
of sinusoids by Fourier series and Fourier transforms. Hence, circuit solution with such input
waveforms can be obtained with relative ease if solution for a sinusoidal input is known.
• A sinusoidal waveform of period
T can be expressed as
v(
t)
=
A sin (
w
t
+
q
)
=
A sin (2
p
t/
T
+
q
)
=
A
sin (2
p
ft
+
q
), where
A is its
amplitude,
T is its period in s,
f
=
1/
T is its
cyclic frequency in s
-
1
(Hertz, Hz) and
w
=
2
p
f
=
2
p
/
T is its
radian frequency or
angular frequency in rad/s. The quantity
q
in
v(
t)
=
A sin (
w
t
+
q
) is defined as the
phase of the sinusoidal function.
• The angular difference between
similarly located points within a cycle period on two normalised
sinusoidal waveforms with same
w
is defined as the
phase difference between them. The
phase
difference between two sinusoids is independent of choice of origin in
t or
w
t axis. The precedence
relationship [
i.e., which comes after (in a visual sense) which] between them in
t or
w
t axis too
is independent of choice of origin. However, the
phase of a sinusoidal waveform depends on the
choice of origin in
t or
w
t axis.
• When a waveform point on a sinusoidal function
v
2
(
t) appears
after a similarly located point on
the waveform of another sinusoidal function
v
1
(
t)
with same frequency,
v
2
(
t) is said to
lag v
1
(
t) in
phase and
q
1
-
q
2
is
called a lag phase angle under this condition.
• Similarly, when a waveform point on a sinusoidal function
v
2
(
t) appears
before a similarly located
point on the waveform of another sinusoidal function
v
1
(
t)
with same frequency,
v
2
(
t) is said to
lead v
1
(
t)
in phase and
q
2
-
q
1
is called a
lead phase angle under this condition.
Problems
6.35
• Phase lag is not necessarily a phase delay and phase lead is not necessarily a phase advance. Phase
lag does not necessarily imply time delay and phase lead does not necessarily imply time advance.
•
Instantaneous power delivered to a two-terminal element,
p(
t)
=
v(
t)
i(
t), where
v(
t) and
i(
t) are the
element variables defined as per passive sign convention. The sum of
p(
t) delivered to all elements
in an isolated circuit will be zero.
• p(
t) delivered to an element is a non-constant function of time in general. If
v(
t) and
i(
t) are
periodic waveforms with period
T and zero average value over a cycle period,
p(
t) will be a periodic
waveform with period 0.5
T and may have a non-zero average value over its cycle period of 0.5
T.
• The energy delivered to the element will also be a function of time. The value of total energy
delivered to the element at end-of-cycle points will fall on a straight line with a slope equal to the
average value of
p(
t) waveform over its cycle period.
• The Cycle Average Power in the context of periodic waveforms is defined as the average of
p(
t)
over one cycle period and is denoted by
P. Average power,
P
av
over a time interval (
t
2
–
t
1
) is defined
as
P
t
t
v t i t dt
t
t
av
=
−
∫
1
2
1
1
2
(
)
( ) ( )
.
Average Power, P
av
=
Cycle Average Power, P, if the waveforms
remain applied to the circuit for sufficient duration compared to their period.
• Effective value or rms value of a waveform is the value of DC quantity that will produce the
same
heating effect as that produced by the waveform when it is applied as a voltage across a resistance
of 1
W
or as a current through a resistance of 1
W
. If
x(
t) is a periodic waveform with period
T, its
rms value is given by
X
T
x t
dt
T
rms
=
∫
1
2
0
[ ( )]
• Let
v(
t)
=
V
m
sin
w
t V and
i(
t)
=
I
m
sin(
w
t
+
q
) A be the voltage across and current through an
electrical element as per passive sign convention. Then rms value of
v(
t) is
V
m
/
√
2, rms value of
current is
I
m
/
√
2 and the average power
delivered to the element is V
rms
I
rms
cos
q
W.
• The average power delivered to an element in a linear circuit excited by sinusoidal sources of
different frequencies (including DC,
i.e., zero frequency) obeys superposition principle.
• Let
v(
t)
=
v
1
(
t)
+
v
2
(
t)
+
…
+
v
n
(
t) be a composite waveform comprising
n distinct frequency
sinusoidal waveforms. Then,
V
V
V
V
rms
1rms
2rms
n rms
=
+
+ +
2
2
2
.
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