Adoption and fostering
Two obvious areas of difficulty in later-adopted
and foster children are the impact of maltreatment,
and difficulties in attachment and relationships (see
Chapters 15, 18 and 19).
Regarding maltreatment, the ACC, men-
tioned above, assesses several areas of likely
difficulty. Clinicians should be alert to possible
post-traumatic symptoms, and depression, often
comorbid with PTSD. Traumatic memories may
only resurface after the child feels safe in foster
care, or after the permanency of adoption.
Triggers may include later losses or severe stresses
as well as reminders like anniversaries or places.
Children may have only fragmentary memories,
and may feel ‘crazy’ or overwhelmed by emotions,
flashbacks or dreams, and reassurance is essential.
The original traumatic events have often not been
known to services or foster/adoptive parents,
making it more difficult for adults to help the child
make sense of traumatic memories or feelings.
Regarding attachments, maltreated children are
obviously at high risk of an ‘insecure’ attachment
organization; but additionally, because the attach-
ment figure whom they need as a source of security
is simultaneously a source of fear, they are at
greatly increased risk of attachment disorganiza-
tion [20]. Insecure-disorganized attachment, much
more than insecure attachment alone, is related to
later behavioural and emotional difficulties, includ-
ing aggressive and oppositional behaviour, later
dissociative symptoms, and poorer self-confidence
and social competence [21].
Once these children enter adoptive or foster
families, they must form new attachments with
strangers, much later than normal and on the basis
of existing internal working models of attachment,
which can profoundly affect their expectations of
new parental relationships. Attachment difficulties
often relate to other areas of behaviour and can
perpetuate existing models. For example, children
may avoid showing a need for comfort or affec-
tion, so as not to reveal (or feel) dependence or
vulnerability. This may have been the best avail-
able strategy for the child who could not expect
comfort, but may conceal from new adoptive par-
ents the chance to respond in a way that could
begin to alter the child’s expectation.
Children showing difficulties in their relation-
ships with caregivers (usually alongside other
behavioural and emotional difficulties), are often
described as showing an attachment disorder.
‘Attachment disorders’, as defined by ICD-10
and DSM-IV, cover two types of difficulty, the
precondition of both being very adverse early
caregiving. Not all maltreated children show such
disorders, and some children show features of
both. These types are:
•
Directing sociable and attachment behaviours
towards people without showing the usual
selectivity (‘disinhibited’). Such indiscriminate
behaviour appears fairly resistant to change,
even though the child may also begin to show
clear attachment behaviour towards a preferred
adult once long enough in placement.
•
Inhibition of sociability and of seeking and
accepting comfort (‘inhibited’); this usually
changes once the child has a responsive
caregiver.
Alongside these defined classifications there
has also been an explosion in the use of the
term ‘attachment disorder’, claimed to underlie a
vast range of difficulties. Many popular websites
put forward a version that ‘is not discernibly
related to attachment theory, is based on no
sound empirical evidence and has given rise to
interventions whose effectiveness is not proven
and may be harmful’ [21]. ‘Attachment disorder’
as a diagnosis for older maltreated children should
not be overextended to their difficulties in other
areas of functioning, which need examination and
treatment in their own right.
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