Child Psychology and Psychiatry


Attachment and separation



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066 Child Psychology and Psychiatry

100


Attachment and separation
markedly lower educational performance than
other children, with the gap widening at each stage.
Children entering care are already a severely
socially disadvantaged group, but foster care
does not remedy this disadvantage [11]. Earlier
maltreatment
profoundly
affects
educational
attainment among foster children, even in stable
placements [12]. Adopters can often advocate
strongly for their children’s needs, in contrast to
many foster carers, who lack the adopters’ legal
status as parents, their lifetime commitment to
the child, and often their educational and social
background.
Looked-after children show much higher rates
of psychiatric difficulty than children remaining in
their families. Ford
et al
. [13] found that 46.4%
of LAC had at least one ICD-10 (
ICD-10 Inter-
national Classification of Mental and Behavioural
Disorders in Children and Adolescents
) psychiatric
diagnosis, compared to 14.6% of deprived and
8.5% of non-deprived children living in private
households. Children in residential care were most
disturbed, but 38.6% of foster children showed
psychiatric difficulties. Comorbidity was high, an
issue discussed below in relation to psychiatric
classification. Few children entered care because
of any parental illness, so psychiatric disorder in
the birth parents cannot account for the enormous
discrepancy between LAC and others. Although
experiences in care may themselves be associated
with difficulties (e.g. prevalence of disorder was
higher where there were many recent placement
changes) the children’s psychiatric difficulties are
likely to derive mainly from abusive or neglectful
parenting. In addition, neurological changes have
been described in children subjected to prenatal
and neonatal stress, likely to be more common in
socially disadvantaged families; and neurobiolog-
ical changes are also known to result from early
maltreatment [14,15].
Besides higher rates of difficulty on measures
designed for community and ordinary clinic
populations,
maltreated
children
also
show
complex and clinically significant problems that
are not well captured by these measures [16]. A
recently developed measure designed to examine
such difficulties is the Assessment Checklist for
Children (ACC). The ACC scales illustrate the
kinds of problem very commonly encountered in
clinical work with maltreated children, including
very disturbed relationship styles, self-injurious
behaviours, disturbances around eating, responses
to trauma, and inappropriate sexual behavior [17].
Current DSM-IV-TR (
Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition – Text
Revision
) psychiatric diagnostic classification does
not adequately capture the difficulties shown by
the population of maltreated children. Children
may receive multiple diagnoses, not linked by ref-
erence to the child’s developmental history and
maltreatment experiences; or show subthreshold
difficulties in numerous areas, causing real impair-
ment not reflected in their diagnosis.
Maltreatment is unlike other forms of trauma
in several ways. It usually occurs early in devel-
opment; is chronic rather than a discrete event;
and takes place within the child’s attachment rela-
tionship, so that parental figures who would be
expected to provide protection are themselves
sources of fear (producing attachment disorga-
nization). It is often cumulative, involving several
different types of trauma, and this is associated
with symptom complexity [18]. Certain forms of
maltreatment may not meet the trauma criterion
of involving threat of death or injury, although
they may still produce symptoms of post-traumatic
stress disorder (PTSD).
It has been argued that the resulting psycho-
logical damage to children is better captured by
a diagnostic category such as childhood complex
trauma or developmental trauma disorder [19],
reflecting the derailment of normal developmental
processes across multiple domains and the orga-
nization of behaviour to prevent recurrence of
trauma effects. Instead of a child receiving several
apparently unrelated diagnoses – e.g. attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct
disorder, reactive attachment disorder and sepa-
ration anxiety – such a diagnostic category would
recognize a pattern of coexisting and somewhat
interrelated difficulties across several domains in
maltreated children. These include attachment,
emotional dysregulation, behavioural and impulse
control, attention and cognition, dissociation and
somatic dysregulation.

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