Middle childhood
25
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Anita Thapar
1
and Antonio Mu˜
noz-Solomando
2
1
Child & Adolescent Psychiatry Section, Department of Psychological Medicine and Neurology, Cardiff
University School of Medicine, Cardiff, UK
2
Tonteg Child and Family Centre, Tonteg Hospital, Pontypridd, UK
DEFINITION
Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
is a childhood-onset, impairing, neurodevelopmen-
tal disorder [1]. ADHD is a diagnostic category
in the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, 4th edition
(DSM-IV). Hyperkinetic
disorder is the diagnostic term used in the
Inter-
national Classification of Diseases, 10th revision
(ICD-10), and specific criteria are listed in Box
25.1. ICD-10 also includes the category of hyperki-
netic conduct disorder. Children with both ADHD
and conduct disorder deserve distinction in that
they have more severe symptoms of ADHD and
a poorer clinical outcome than those with ADHD
alone. DSM-IV differs from ICD-10 in several
ways; notably it divides ADHD symptoms into two
rather than three groups (hyperactive/impulsive
and inattention). A diagnosis of ADHD, combined
type, requires symptoms in both groups. DSM-IV
also allows for diagnosing ADHD, inattentive
type and hyperactive-impulsive type.
Comorbidity is common and includes:
•
oppositional defiant disorder and conduct dis-
order;
•
developmental problems including reading dis-
ability (dyslexia), developmental coordination
disorder, speech and language problems;
•
tic disorders, including Tourette syndrome;
•
anxiety and depression;
•
learning/intellectual disability;
•
pervasive developmental disorders.
Child Psychology and Psychiatry: Frameworks for practice
, Second Edition. Edited by David Skuse, Helen Bruce,
Linda Dowdney and David Mrazek.
2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2011 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Current diagnostic criteria state that ADHD
should be diagnosed in the absence of anxiety
disorders, mood (affective) disorders, pervasive
developmental disorders and schizophrenia. The
co-occurrence of ADHD with these disorders is,
however, being recognized and these exclusion
criteria may change in ICD-11 and DSM-V, as
may the age of onset criterion.
EPIDEMIOLOGY
In the most recent UK epidemiological study [2],
prevalence rates were 1.4% for DSM-IV ADHD
combined type and 1% for ICD-10 hyperkinetic
disorder. Some studies have found higher rates of
up to about 5–6%. Although the rates of ADHD
recognition, clinician-provided diagnosis and treat-
ment have markedly increased since the 1980s in
the UK, USA and Europe, there is no evidence
that the prevalence of the disorder or symptoms
is rising over time [3]. This suggests that increased
rates of treatment are in part due to greater clini-
cian and public awareness of ADHD. Likewise, it
has sometimes been assumed that the prevalence
of ADHD varies widely in different countries and
is especially high in the USA. However, a meta-
analysis of worldwide studies found no significant
differences between European and US prevalence
estimates in ADHD. The results also suggested
that reported differences in prevalence appear to
be influenced by methodological variation, notably
whether or not there is associated impairment,
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