Cambridge Grammar of English Hardback with cd-rom a comprehensive Guide

Û

377–407 Modality

LEXICAL VERBS

228

Regular verbs

228a

Regular verbs, the class to which most lexical verbs belong, have four different

forms. These forms realise a variety of functions. The most typical functions are

shown in the table below.

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Regular verbs: form and function

form

function

example

base form

present tense 

People always 

look at me.

infinitive (with or without to)

I want to 

look. 

Let me 

look.

-s form

present tense (3rd person singular)

She 

looks at everyone.

-ing form

progressive aspect

What 

are you looking at?

non-tensed in non-finite clause

Looking ahead, we should book flights

for the summer holidays.

gerund (nominal form) 

Looking shouldn’t offend anyone.

-ing 

form adjectives

They had to work in 

freezing

temperatures.

-ed form

past tense

We 

looked for a taxi.

-ed 

participle

I’ve 

looked everywhere.

non-tensed in non-finite clauses

Looked at in that way, it seemed less

problematic.

-ed 

form adjectives

We had some wonderful Irish 

smoked

salmon.

The present tense form is the same as the base form for all persons except third

person singular, which takes the -s form:

I/we/you/they 

look

(present tense form)

He/she/it/one 

looks

(-s form)

Irregular verbs

228b

Irregular verbs, like regular verbs, have a base form, an -s form and an -ing form,

but they vary in how the functions of the regular verb -ed form are realised.

Some irregular verbs have the same form for the base form and for all the

functions of the -ed form.

All three forms the same

base form

-ed form as past tense

-ed form as -ed participle/adjective/non-tensed

cut

cut

cut

set set 

set

shut

shut

shut

Some irregular verbs have the same form for the base and -ed form as 

-ed

participle/adjective/non-tensed, but a different form for the -ed form as 

past tense.

Base form and -ed participle, etc. the same; past tense different

base form

-ed form as past tense

-ed form as -ed participle/adjective/non-tensed

come

came

come

become became 

become

run

ran

run

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Types of verb | 421

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Some irregular verbs have three different forms which correspond to the functions

of the base and the -ed forms of regular verbs.

All three forms different

base form

-ed form as past tense

-ed form as -ed participle/adjective/non-tensed

speak

spoke

spoken

take

took

taken

swim

swam

swum

There are other variations too. 

Û

529 Appendix: Irregular verbs for a full list of

irregular verbs with their base and -ed forms

Be, have, do

Be

, have and do have irregular forms for the present tense:

be

have

do

I 

am

I/we/you/they 

have

I/we/you/they 

do

you/we/they 

are

he/she/it/one 

has

he/she/it/one 

does

he/she/it/one 

is

Be

also has irregular past tense forms:

I/he/she/it 

was

we/you/they 

were

THE BASE FORM

229

The base form functions as the present tense form for all persons and numbers

except the third person singular (which uses the -s form). (Modal verbs do not

show these contrasts of tense, person and number.):

They 

work on exactly the same principle.

I 

hate carrots.

The base form functions as the infinitive (with or without to):

I hope to

see you tomorrow.

I’ll let you

know what’s to be done.

The base form is used for the imperative mood:

Sit here then.

The base form also functions as the subjunctive mood (

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159e

) for all persons,

including third person singular:

The doctor insisted that he 

go to the hospital for a series of tests.

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THE -S FORM

230

The -s form is used with third-person-singular subjects (he/she/it/one and

singular nouns) to indicate the present tense:

He 

lives at 27 Webber Close.

It 

depends on what you want to do.

The coffee 

smells good.

THE -ING FORM

231

The -ing form is used with auxiliary be to form progressive aspect:

I 

was doing some work for Sally. 

He

’s looking well these days.

The -ing form also occurs in non-finite clauses:

Getting no reply, she rang the bell again. 

He stared at me, as if 

trying to make up his mind.

The -ing form functions as the gerund, which is a noun-like (nominal) form which

can occur as the head of a noun phrase or as the complement of a preposition:

When I was a lad, I had to milk cows by hand. Now all 

milking is done by

machines.

It was a good play, with some very good 

acting.

Thank you 

for coming.

You can get back to the car park 

by going up to the first floor.

In its nominal function, the -ing form is frequent in noun compounds:

We need a new 

washing machine.

Where are my 

walking-boots?

The -ing form can also act as an adjective:

Falling

processor prices

means this is a good time to buy a new computer.

THE -ED FORM

232

The -ed form indicates the past tense:

I just 

phoned your place.

It 

looked a bit big.

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The -ed form functions as the -ed participle, which is used with auxiliary have and

be

to form perfect aspect and passive voice:

I’ve 

broken my glasses.

(perfect aspect)

I wasn’t 

offended by what she said.

(passive voice)

The -ed form also occurs in non-finite clauses:

Encouraged by our progress, we decided to go on.

Whenever 

asked, show all your documents.

The -ed form is often used as an adjective:

D’you want 

fried

rice

or plain?

AUXILIARY VERBS

233

General 233a

Be

Auxiliary be is used with the -ing form of a lexical verb to indicate progressive

aspect and with the -ed form of a lexical verb to indicate passive voice:

She 

was working in Glasgow. 

(progressive aspect)

She 

was rushed to hospital last week. 

(passive voice)

Do

Auxiliary do is used with the base form of a lexical verb in negative, interrogative

and emphatic structures, and as a substitute for a lexical verb or clause predicate:

I 

do not trust people who change so abruptly. 

(negative)

Did you see Sarah at school? 

(interrogative)

I’m a good complainer. I 

do complain a lot. 

(emphatic)

A: I cried.

B: Yes I did too. 

(substitute)

Have

Auxiliary have is used with the -ed participle to indicate perfect aspect:

We 

have looked down there.

They 

had already eaten when we got there.

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Negative forms and auxiliary verbs

233b

Not

is placed after the auxiliary verb to form the negative:

Pupils 

were not turning up.

(Pupils not were turning up.)

I 

have not left the house.

The contracted form of the negative (n’t) is very frequent in spoken language and

is also used in informal writing. In writing it is attached to the auxiliary verb,

without a space:

It 

hasn’t got any particular sort of name.

You 

weren’t here yesterday.

The locals 

don’t mix that well with the students.

When the contracted forms of be (’m, ’re and ’s) and the contracted forms of have

(’ve, ’s and ’d) are used, n’t is not used:

I

’m not doing that one.

(I’mn’t doing that one.)

We

’ve not abandoned you.

(or: We haven’t abandoned you.)

Interrogative forms and auxiliary verbs

233c

Interrogative structures involving auxiliary verbs consist of auxiliary + subject +

lexical verb:

Are the children looking forward to it?

Has she finished her room now?

What 

did your mother do?

(What did do your mother?)

Auxiliary verbs also occur in corresponding question tags:

Annabel

has lost a lot of weight actually, hasn’t she?

You 

know what it’s like, don’t you?

Contracted forms of auxiliary verbs

233d

Auxiliary verbs have contracted forms which are widely used in spoken language

and in informal writing. The contracted forms are written with an apostrophe (’)

and without a space. The contracted forms are:

be

do

have

I

’m

d’ you (do)

I/we/they

’ve (have)

We/you/they

’re (are)

He/she/it/one

’s (has)

He/she/it/one

’s (is)

I/we/you/he/she/it/one/they

’d (had)

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I think 

they’re starting it again. 

(they are)

She’s paying for everything.

(she is)

Apparently 

it’s what he’s wanted to do all his life. 

(it is/he has)

Do you

frequently contracts to d’you. In very informal spoken language, did you

may also contract to d’you:

D’you normally have to book? 

(do you)

D’you hear what’s happened to Ted? 

(did you)

The interpretation of ’s depends on what follows it. It represents is in the present

progressive if it is followed by the -ing form (she’s eating = she is eating), or if it is

followed by an adjective or a noun (she’s lovely = she is lovely; she’s a girl = she is

a girl

). If it is followed by an -ed participle, it can represent is in the be passive

(she’s forgiven = she is forgiven) or has in the present perfect (she’s started = she

has started

). It represents has if it is followed by got (she’s got = she has got):

She

’s turning into a friend. 

(She is turning …)

It

’s published by Cambridge University Press. 

(passive: It is published by …)

He

’s left. He left Sunday. 

(He has left.)

The contraction ’d represents had if it is followed by the -ed participle (I’d left = I

had left

) or by better (I’d better = I had better). It represents would if it is followed

by the base form (I’d like = I would like; I’d have done it = I would have done it),

or if it is followed by rather or sooner (I’d rather not go = I would rather not go):

I

’d phoned and he wasn’t there. 

(-ed participle: I had phoned …)

I

’d agree with Jim with what he’s said there. 

(base form: I would agree with Jim …)

Ellipsis and substitution with auxiliary verbs

233e

Auxiliary verbs occur in clauses with ellipsis and in substitute clauses. The

contracted forms are not used:

A: Are you looking forward to the New Year?

B: Oh yes. Yes, I am.

(B: Oh yes. Yes, I’m.)

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He wondered why he’d been put where he 

had. 

(ellipsis: … where he had been put.)

I saw her across a crowded room and thought she was really beautiful and that

I must speak to her, so I 

did. 

(ellipsis: … so I did speak to her.)

He couldn’t go so I 

did instead. 

(substitution: … so I went instead.)

MODAL VERBS

234

General

234a

The core modal verbs are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will, would and

must

. Core modal verbs are used with the base form of a lexical verb, without to:

Could I speak to Maureen please?

(Could I to speak to Maureen please?)

Core modal verbs are not preceded by the auxiliary verbs:

Can you help me, please?

(Do you can help me, please?)

You mustn’t put it near a naked flame.

(You don’t must put it near a naked flame.)

Modal verbs may be followed by auxiliary be and have indicating aspect and

voice:

We 

could be waiting here for hours. Let’s go home.

(progressive aspect)

I 

might have got killed.

(perfect aspect)

These gates 

will be locked at 8pm.

(passive voice)

There are also semi-modal verbs such as dare, need, ought to and used to

(

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395

).

Negative forms of modal verbs

234b

Not

is placed after the modal verb to form the negative:

She 

could not shut her eyes to the daylight. 

I 

would not wish to disagree.

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The contracted negative n’t is used in spoken language and in informal writing

with can, could, should, would, might and must, and with the semi-modals ought,

need

and dare:

I 

couldn’t believe it.

He 

shouldn’t have been irritated by them.

I’m told I 

mustn’t eat too quickly.

She 

needn’t worry if she can’t get back to me.

The contracted negative forms of shall and will are shan’t and won’t:

I 

shan’t ask you again.

My white shirt probably 

won’t fit me.

Negative forms, uncontracted and contracted, for the core modal verbs

verb

uncontracted negative

contracted negative

can

cannot; can not

can’t

could

could not

couldn’t

may

may not

mayn’t 

(very rare)

might

might not

mightn’t

must

must not

mustn’t

will

will not

’ll not; won’t

shall

shall not

’ll not; shan’t

would

would not

’d not; wouldn’t

should

should not

shouldn’t

Interrogative forms of modal verbs

234c

Interrogative structures involving modal verbs consist of modal verb + subject +

lexical verb:

Will you be at home Saturday morning?

Can my friend come too?

Auxiliary do is not used:

Can you tell me where the market is please?

(Do you can tell me where the market is please?)

Modal verbs also occur in corresponding tags:

They 

will make it on time, won’t they?

He 

mustn’t shout like that, must he?

He 

could win, he could.

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Contracted forms of modal verbs

234d

Will

and would have contracted forms which are especially common in spoken

language and informal writing. Will and shall are frequently shortened to ’ll in

declarative clauses:

We

’ll see what happens. 

(We will/shall see …)

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365 on ‘independent’ ’ll

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377–407 Modality

Ellipsis and substitution with modal verbs

234e

Modal verbs occur in clauses with ellipsis. The contracted forms are not used in

ellipted clauses and clauses with substitute do:

A: We could get a video couldn’t we?

B: Yeah, we could.

A: So will you look after that for us?

B: I will.

(I’ll.)

A: But it might be worth just giving that number a ring.

B: Yeah, I will do.

(Yeah, I’ll do.)

MULTI-WORD VERBS

235

General

235a

A lexical verb may combine with a particle to form a multi-word verb which

behaves as a single unit of meaning. The particle may be an adverb or a

preposition. In the following examples, verbs and their accompanying particles

are in bold:

This 

calls for a celebration. 

(calls for = demands/requires)

They’ve been 

turned down once already. 

(turned down = refused)

Did mum and dad 

get away all right? 

(get away = leave/depart)

I think I’m going to 

drop off soon. 

(drop off = fall asleep)

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Some multi-word verbs have two particles:

He never 

looks down on her for what she’s doing. 

(looks down on = 

disrespects, considers less worthy)

I don’t see why I should have to 

put up with that. 

(put up with = accept, tolerate)

The particle is linked closely to the lexical verb, and cannot be separated and

fronted in the way it can in other structures:

Off she ran. 

(verb run plus adverb off; non-fronted version: She ran off.)

Mum and dad 

got away all right.

(Away got mum and dad all right.)

(multi-word verb get away = leave, depart)

For Jill I bought a necklace. 

(verb buy plus prepositional phrase for Jill; non-fronted version: I bought a

necklace for Jill.)

This 

calls for a celebration.

(For a celebration this calls.)

(multi-word verb call for plus object a celebration; calls for = demands)

The most frequent verbs and the particles they combine with to form multi-word verbs

verb

example particles

verb

example particles

come

into, off, out, up

make

for, out, up

get

at, away, on

pick

on, out, up

give

in, off, up

pull

over, through, up

go

into, off, on

put

across, forward, out

hold

against, on, to

run

into, over, up

keep

on, up, to

set

off, out, up

knock

about, down, over

take

back, off, to

let

off, out, up

turn

over, round, up

look

after, into, over

work

on, out, up

Multi-word verbs fall into three main classes, which are described in subsequent

sections:

● phrasal verbs (235c, d, e)

● prepositional verbs (235f)

● phrasal-prepositional verbs (235g)