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Alberto Moravia and Italian Fascism: Censorship, Racism and Le
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DOI: 10.1080/13532940600709239
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Modern Italy
Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2006, pp. 127–145
Alberto Moravia and Italian Fascism:
Censorship, Racism and
Le ambizioni
sbagliate
George Talbot
Alberto Moravia was an ambiguous figure for the Fascists. His first novel,
Gli Indifferenti
, was
an international success, and was praised by Bottai. His second novel,
Le ambizioni sbagliate
,
ran into difficulties with Fascist censorship. His maternal uncle was a member of Mussolini’s
government. His paternal first cousins were Carlo and Nello Rosselli. This essay explores
Moravia’s relations with the regime in the light of archival evidence, contemporary ‘revisions’ of
his reputation and recent controversy over his letters to Ciano and Mussolini.
Introduction
My aim in this article is to explore Alberto Moravia’s interaction with Italian
Fascism, and the controversy generated by letters he wrote to Galeazzo Ciano and
to Mussolini, which have come to light in recent years. Documents released by
the Archivio Centrale dello Stato in 2003 include a letter to Mussolini, written in
1938 by Moravia, setting out the reasons why the
Leggi razziali
should not be
applied to him.
1
The better to explore these issues, I want to set out two distinct
objectives. The first is to enunciate Italian Fascist cultural policy specifically
in relation to literary culture, in terms of producers (specifically writers and
publishers), mediators (booksellers and public libraries), consumers (buyers
of books and readers of texts) and the State, in order to set the scene for
a discussion of Moravia’s predicament. The second is to examine Moravia’s
second novel,
Le ambizioni sbagliate
(1935) and its cool official reception in the
light of that policy and of other, conflicting, policies, including, crucially, the issue
of race. By way of conclusion I discuss the effects which archival revelations and
polemic may have on the posthumous reputation of a writer, and this, perforce,
takes me into the territory of historiography.
2
Correspondence to: George Talbot, Faculty of Arts & Social Sciences, University of Hull HU6 7RX, UK.
Tel.: 01482 465562; Email: G.R.Talbot@hull.ac.uk
1353-2944 Print/1469-9877 Online/06/020127–19
ß
2006 Association for the Study of Modern Italy
DOI: 10.1080/13532940600709239
Fascism and Culture
A productive branch of recent scholarship has concerned itself with the question of
Italian Fascism’s relationship with culture, including literature, writers and readers
(Griffin 1998; Adamson 2001; Ben-Ghiat 2001, pp. 46–69). The question is given
greater currency by the archival testimony on writers such as Ignazio Silone and
Moravia, and it has been seized upon, in particular, by revisionist historians in Italy
and the United States.
3
Without a doubt the complex relationship between Fascism
and writers evolved over the course of the
ventennio
and this evolution can be charted
tellingly in the well-documented case of Alberto Moravia.
It is well known that one early strand in Italian Fascism emerged out of
iconoclastic literary movements such as Futurism. Another, more aristocratic one
can be seen in the demagogic activities of Gabriele D’Annunzio, whether dropping
leaflets from an aeroplane over Vienna during the First World War (a form of
spectacle which anti-Fascists would later use against the regime) or leading his militia
into and occupying Fiume in 1919.
4
Mussolini felt this political potential, and, as
both Renzo De Felice and Michael Ledeen have argued, he was quick to distance
himself from D’Annunzio, seeing clearly a rival for leadership (Bosworth 2002, pp.
135–136). He successfully tamed F. T. Marinetti with the prospect of institutional
sinecures. By writing a preface for its second edition, he was able to make politics out
of Giuseppe Ungaretti’s war poetry written in the trenches of the Carso.
5
Almost
from the outset, therefore, the association of politics and literature, and its myths of
origin, were part and parcel of Mussolini’s self-promotion.
Literary movements, however, were never going to bring Fascists real political
power, even if they could provide effective propaganda methods and perhaps some
legitimacy in ideological terms. Anti-liberal violence in pursuit of a political end led
Fascist cultural values inexorably away from the niche market of
avant garde
cultural
expression to reactionary bombast, opportunist populism and the manufacture of
consent. By the mid-1920s Mussolini had gone from writing prefaces for slim
volumes of poetry to elaborating a role for creative writers in Fascist Italy:
What then is your task, the task of those who are creators? All Italian writers
have to be the standard-bearers of the new kind of Italian civilization, at
home and especially abroad. It is the job of writers to spread what we might
term a ‘spiritual imperialism’ in their plays, in their books, in their public
addresses.
6
This exhortation comes from Mussolini’s address (1 August 1926) to the Society of
Authors and Editors, newly transferred from Milan to Rome.
What might it mean to be standard-bearers of Italian civilisation at home and
abroad? Mussolini did not elaborate on the criteria, and as Walter L. Adamson has
argued, Italian Fascism never developed ‘a monolithic, specifically Fascist aesthetics
or seek to enforce coherent Fascist principles as the Reich Chamber of the Arts did in
Hitler’s Germany’ (Adamson 2001, p. 234; Pertile 1986, pp. 162–184). Those judged
to be successful, apparently, would be admitted, like Marinetti, to the new literary
academy, the
Accademia d’Italia
.
7
This was followed by the institution of literary
prizes, such as the
Premio Mussolini
, the
Premio Bagutta
and a host of others.
128
G. Talbot
(Other, less elevated writers, were fair game to be recruited into the murky world of
police informers, such as the young Silone in Rome, or Pitigrilli, pseudonym
of Dino Segre, the novelist–informer who moved in
Giustizia e Liberta`
circles in
Turin and Paris, from where he kept tabs on Moravia, as we will see.) Therefore,
successful standard-bearers could be identified, after the fact, by the rewards they
received in terms of state patronage and recognition, and this might or might not
correspond to the verdict of the market. The likes of Pitigrilli received fewer public
rewards and had to live with their consciences. So there was a coherent reward
strategy even though there were no obviously coherent Fascist literary principles, the
latter being a state of affairs which Roger Griffin has characterised as ‘totalitarian
pluralism’ (Griffin 1998, p. 20). However, as Ruth Ben-Ghiat has argued, within
this totalitarian pluralism it was the novel, rather than free verse
a` la
Ungaretti,
which emerged as the literary form of choice for Fascist intellectuals. ‘Specifically’,
she continues ‘the novel’s potential to offer a more integrated portrait of the
individual appealed to those who wished to utilise literature to inculcate Fascist
values’ (Ben-Ghiat 2001, p. 48).
It is in this context that Moravia’s first novel,
Gli Indifferenti
, burst onto the scene
in 1929, presenting what Giuseppe Bottai would later describe as ‘a new ethical
attitude’. But Moravia’s artistic and commercial success—always disapproved of by
the more conservative elements—was an ambiguous one. The novel was published at
Moravia’s own—or more likely his father’s—expense, by Alpes, a publishing house
then owned by Arnaldo Mussolini. That did not in itself constitute an endorsement
by the regime. Ben-Ghiat has claimed that
Gli Indifferenti
has ‘affinities with the
causes of the fascist avant garde’ (Ben-Ghiat 2001, p. 55). Affinities, however, are
nebulous things, and such a statement is sufficiently vague to be true, but of
questionable heuristic value, especially when dealing with an adjective as mercurial
as ‘fascist’. To support her case she points to Moravia’s association with two youth
journals,
I Lupi
and
Interplanetario
(for both of which he wrote in 1928), journals
in which his novel took shape. These journals, like Marinetti and the Futurists
a generation earlier, embraced enthusiastically a clean break with the past and the
intensely literary (D’Annunzian)
prosa d’arte
in favour of a drier, more sparse
narrative. Moravia’s lean prose, contemporary themes and realist treatment of
character struck a chord with the Italian reading public and audiences abroad.
Whether this supports the view that
Gli Indifferenti
might ‘offer a more integrated
portrait of the individual [appealing] to those who wished to utilise literature to
inculcate Fascist values’ is another matter. It is difficult to sustain an argument
according to which
Gli Indifferenti
would ever contribute to the inculcation of ‘deep
belief’ in Fascism among its readers.
8
Its contribution to a ‘new ethical attitude’ is
probably no more than as a caustic portrayal of the behaviours of the decadent, rich,
liberal Roman society. That much it certainly has in common with the
avant
garde
critique of decadent liberal Italy, but that is not quite the same thing as
standard-bearing for the new Fascist Italy, to use Mussolini’s terms.
Nevertheless the book’s success was recognised by the hierarchy.
9
The Italian
public found praise for Moravia and his first novel in the
Enciclopedia italiana
Treccani
.
10
The
Treccani
was to be Fascism’s most lavish cultural enterprise
of a literary nature, edited by Giovanni Gentile and enlisting most of the
country’s prominent writers and intellectuals, with notable exceptions such as
Modern Italy
129
Croce and Montale as well as more obviously
political
opponents of the regime
(Turi 1995, pp. 360–367). The
Treccani
became a good example of Mussolini’s
standard-bearing, published with a generous state subvention that kept its price
affordable to the reading population at large and effectively distorted the market.
Culture and Censorship
Controlling the State’s reference encyclopedia, however, was just the visible part of
a programme of establishing control over all that appeared in print within the
boundaries of the State (Cannistraro 1975; De Grazia 1981; Turi 1995; Corner 2002).
Recent research in Italy indicates that publishing houses came more and more under
the financial control of the State, which entered into relationships of patronage as it
did with writers through the
Accademia d’Italia
.
11
Publishers as clients of the State
therefore became more susceptible to grace and favour, and most crucially to a form
of corrupting and creeping
de facto
censorship whose existence the government
continued to deny right up to 1942. The carrot for writers was membership of the
Academy or other state sinecures, such as those enjoyed by the likes of Vincenzo
Cardarelli and Marinetti, as well as contracts to write entries for the
Treccani
.
12
The
principal carrot for publishers was for those active in the school textbook market.
The
libro di Stato
or state textbook series, especially for the
scuola elementare
or
primary-school sector, provided a monopoly with guaranteed sales, and therefore
substantial revenue for the publishing houses providing them. The case of children’s
literature was slightly less monopolistic, but scarcely less lucrative. Sales in the high-
culture end of the market, on the other hand, were never spectacularly lucrative, and
depended in most cases on subsidy. The State supplied these subsidies through the
Ufficio Stampa
and later through ‘Minculpop’, the
Ministero di Cultura Popolare
.
Smaller publishing houses, in particular, left themselves open to political influence in
this way (Bonsaver 2003). In other words, the carrot shaded into the stick. But the
stick proper remained censorship, after the early days of extreme
squadrista
violence
when independent newspaper offices and printing presses were destroyed by direct
action. Anti-Fascist publishing outlets were quickly suppressed by more legal means
once the Fascists assumed power and began making the laws, rendering the meaning
of the stick—the lictor’s rod—symbolic. Mussolini had set out his vision of force and
consensus in an infamous 1923 speech:
the government shows clearly that it tends to rule not through violence but,
where possible and most desirably, through the consensus of its citizens.
Naturally the government quarters and has at the ready the requisite forces of
the voluntary militia for national security, so as to have recourse to force where
consensus proves insufficient. (Turi 2002, p. 54)
Unlike the public book-burnings in Nazi Germany, Italian suppression of dissent
during Fascism was discreet, corrupting and insidious. Political censorship existed
informally, without a juridical basis. Printers were required to apply for a licence
(Fabre 1998, p. 19). From at least as early as 1929 Mussolini’s Ministry of the
Interior was removing from circulation not just specific literary and cultural works,
130
G. Talbot
but all work of blacklisted authors, both living and dead. These authors’ works past,
present and future were not to be published or otherwise distributed within Italy.
13
Their works in print were to be removed from public libraries, schools, universities,
bookshops and publishers’ catalogues. This had obvious financial implications for
publishers, printers and booksellers.
Recent research shows that it is five years later, in 1934, that censorship effectively
begins as a plank of Fascist cultural policy and that this change in policy has its
origins beyond the fields of literature and aesthetics. On 3 April 1934, Mussolini as
Head of Government and Minister of the Interior issued a circular to all publishers
and printers requiring three proof copies of all documents and designs intended for
publication to be submitted to the local Prefect for approval. Eight months later this
provision was centralised (27 December 1934), when the power to check proofs
passed from the (autonomous) regional prefectures to the government’s
Ufficio
Stampa
or press office, the bailiwick of Mussolini’s son-in-law Ciano.
14
The effect of
this centralisation, backed up by far greater State control over the finances of the
publishing industry, was to give Mussolini and his officials at the Ministry of the
Interior a decisive measure of control over what ordinary Italians could read, and
by the same token, what publishers could publish and therefore what writers would
choose to write. In other words, the corrupting influence of the State led inevitably to
a process of self-censorship.
Financial control and this informal but highly effective censorship of publishers
and the press went hand in hand. This is not to say that it was always effective. There
are various stories of slow-witted censors and their stooges being bounced into
publishing material intended to be suppressed. Lorenzo Greco recounts one such
case (Greco 1983, pp. 133–142). In early 1937 Silvio Guarnieri submitted two sets of
proofs for approval, one a monograph on D’Annunzio and the other a scholarly
work called
Il costume letterario
. The D’Annunzio book was given the
nulla osta
but
Il costume letterario
ran into trouble. The censor proposed suppressing one entire
chapter. Guarnieri and his publisher Bonsanti objected and a compromise was
reached, according to which the title of the suppressed chapter would be published,
followed by one blank page. (Guarnieri, probably tongue-in-cheek, had requested
that all the pages occupied by the suppressed chapter be left blank.) Having reached
this compromise, Guarnieri then wrote to the editor of a regional newspaper in
Ancona, the
Corriere adriatico
, which carried on its masthead ‘Organo del partito
nazionale fascista’, announcing more or less truthfully that his book had been
passed by the censor and would be published shortly, and offering the newspaper
exclusive rights on a section of it. When the editor accepted this offer of a scoop,
Guarnieri sent him the clean proofs of the suppressed chapter and bought up a large
quantity of the newspaper’s issue which carried his chapter, to distribute with his
censored book.
This case doubtless would be accorded greater prominence in a study which
sought to portray Fascist censorship in Italy as comic and haphazard. Generally
speaking it was neither. The story serves as an exception to the rule, which was,
on the contrary, effective, cunning and infinitely more subtle than a German
Verbrennerung
, which might well be used with the intention of
encourager les autres
domestically and strike terror into hearts, but which could also play into the hands
of the foreign press.
15
Modern Italy
131
The foreign press was not quite blind to censorship in Italy. The regime’s relations
with the American press, with some notable exceptions, were generally cosy. The
exceptions included George Seldes, who, upon his arrival in Rome in 1923 to write
for the
Chicago Tribune
, cancelled the Italian government service, introduced by
Mussolini, which gave American newspapers 5,000 words of free cable transmission
per month. Seldes regarded this correctly as creeping corruption, but earned a
reprimand from his boss, who saw costs increasing (Diggins 1972, p. 43). A further
example of this creeping corruption, analogous to the patronage of the
Accademia
d’Italia
for writers, is a decree of 20 February 1928, which extended to foreign
journalists the perquisites of the
Albo Professionale dei Giornalisti
(Professional
Association of Journalists), implicitly in return for good behaviour and favourable
coverage. Seldes refused to be muzzled and was expelled from Italy, using his
experience as the basis for his book about Mussolini,
Sawdust Caesar
, which
was written in 1932 but which American censorship kept out of print until 1936.
In 1932, at the depth of the Depression in America, Mussolini was not the
bogeyman he would become a decade later, and his corporativist doctrines found
favour with many American industrialists, intent on imposing wage restraint and
breaking unions. After Seldes’ departure, there was little hostile coverage of Italian
affairs in the American press. A sporadic exception is Henry Furst, an Italian-
resident occasional contributor to the
New York Times Book Review
, who did draw
attention to creeping censorship such as the removal of books from shop displays.
16
But his articles were carried in a Sunday supplement of the
New York Times
and
would not have had much influence on policymakers abroad, although, as we shall
see, they may have influenced decisions in Italy itself.
So, with a foreign and domestic press essentially muzzled, and with a tight control
over the publishing industry, what is the evidence for the expression of Fascist
cultural values and for the promotion of the ‘spiritual imperialism’ dear to
Mussolini’s heart in 1926? In what way did it differ from more traditional values?
When Moravia’s second novel appeared, Italy seemed closer to becoming that
imperial power. Social policy had become more conservative, following the signing
of the Lateran Pacts, with the legal ban on homosexual acts between men in 1931,
and increasingly repressive legislation on women (De Grazia 1992). The values
trumpeted concerned large families, clear gender divisions between soldiers and
nurturers, colonial expansion and patriotism. By 1935 Italy was preparing for the
invasion of Ethiopia, backed by a massive propaganda campaign through the
Agenzia Stefani
, which transmitted ideological assumptions on the roles of women,
on ‘race’ and on the figure of the soldier as the yardstick of Italian manhood. These
are the shared assumptions of the ruling party in Italy by the mid-1930s, and it is
significant that they inform the immediate cause of Mussolini’s memorandum of 3
April 1934, which marks a change in cultural policy and the introduction of the
second wave of censorship on the publishing sector. Far from being a response to the
Nuremberg book burnings, the catalyst for the change in policy, according to
Giorgio Fabre, was a serialised novel which had landed on Mussolini’s desk in
Palazzo Venezia.
17
Perhaps, to be more precise, the cover illustration of that novel
may have been responsible for the circular. The book was a novel called
Sambadu`
,
amore negro
by ‘Mura`’ (Maria Volpi). The cover illustration is the photograph
of a white woman in a bathrobe that does not cover her right shoulder, with her
132
G. Talbot
arms around a fully clothed and well-dressed black man who is cradling her in his
arms and looking down in profile into her eyes, which display a devotion reminiscent
of Renaissance madonnas. The picture leaves the prospective reader in no doubt as
to the nature of their relationship. This would have been scandalous in its time in
terms of the use of religious iconography, its challenge to the State’s official racism
and its depiction of a (presumably) Italian woman ‘betraying’ her race and her
historic destiny as a bearer of children to the Italian soldier–hero. Little matter that
a cursory reading of the text would show that the story ends in tears, the woman
encoded as a victim of black male cruelty. Mussolini knew the value of the front-page
headline and the potent image. This piece of pulp fiction therefore represented
a challenge to the spiritual imperialism of the regime, in its literary form of choice,
the novel. Thus, according to Fabre’s careful reading, literary censorship as
cultural policy grew directly out of racism. But in Moravia’s case, this is just part
of the story.
Censorship and Moravia’s Reputation
Despite the international success of
Gli Indifferenti
in 1929, its enthusiastic review
by Margarita Sarfatti, the
Duce
’s sometime mistress and intellectual mentor, in
Il Popolo d’Italia
and a steady stream of stories and articles for Ugo Ojetti’s
Pegaso
and for
La Stampa
,
Caratteri
and
Oggi
, Moravia was an ambiguous figure, and this
is confirmed by his various police files. On the one hand, his maternal uncle Augusto
De Marsanich was a high-ranking Fascist, under-secretary in the Department of
Communications. Moravia was lauded in the
Treccani
encyclopedia. Giuseppe
Bottai praised him in the pages of
Critica fascista
(Bottai 1932, 1935; Ben-Ghiat
2001, p. 231, note 47). He was granted a passport to travel all over the world. On the
other, his first cousins included Carlo and Nello Rosselli.
Moravia’s file at the
Divisione generale di pubblica sicurezza
contains the following
typewritten memorandum, sent by the
Polizia politica
to the
Divisione Affari Generali
e Riservati
(Rome, 28 March 1934):
Of conspicuous notoriety in the literary world, especially in the Capital is the
young Pincherle Moravia Alberto, son of Carlo, disciple of the well-known
ex-priest Prof. Bonaiuti and author of a book titled ‘gli indifferenti’ whose acid
content is in the title itself.
The lower-case ‘gli indifferenti’ suggests the state functionary’s distaste for such
a man and his literary production. Bottai may have backed him, but more
orthodox Fascists were evidently less enthusiastic. The memorandum continues:
In respect of Pincherle the Royal Questura of Rome, which since 1931 has been
checking his mail, in a letter of 23 February relates the following:
‘[
. . .
] Moravia Pincherle Alberto is more precisely Pincherle Moravia Alberto
son of Carlo and of Marsanich Teresa, born Rome 28.11.1907, writer, single,
resident in Via Gaetano Donizzetti [sic], no. 6, cousin of the noted
fuoriuscito
Rosselli Carlo Alberto.
Modern Italy
133
Our investigations do not indicate that Pincherle has been involved in
antifascist activities in the Capital.
On the other hand he is not a member of the Federazione Fascista dell’Urbe
and he keeps his distance from the Regime.
He lives in some luxury along with his sisters Adriana and Elena, and his
brother Gastone as well as his parents.
Pincherle Alberto seems to travel abroad often and he bears a passport issued
to him by this Questura, renewed 25.7 this year, for France, England,
Germany, Switzerland, Belgium, Holland, Austria and Spain, which he claims
to visit in order to study and for the purpose of journalism.
I take this opportunity to point out that the aforementioned sister Adriana,
being the lover of the noted Mario Levi, a recent
fuoriuscito
who belongs to
‘giustizia e liberta`’, has been the object of investigations carried out by this
Division, with a negative outcome.
18
Moravia’s father was Jewish, and his full name, Alberto Pincherle Moravia,
represented two recognisably Jewish surnames.
19
In 1935, three years before the
race laws, this was already a cause for concern, especially for a cousin of Carlo
Rosselli, in the wake of the OVRA arrests in Turin.
20
These arrests followed the
interrogation of Sion Segre (Pitigrilli’s cousin), who was captured at Ponte Tresa on
the Swiss border by customs police on 11 March 1934. (The customs police were
unaware that OVRA agents were watching both Levi and Segre, tipped off by
their informer ‘Togo’, Rene´ Odin; Blatt 1995, pp. 30–31.) The man described
in Moravia’s police file as Adriana’s
amante
, Mario Levi, escaped, and it was
claimed, taunted the Italian police from the Swiss side of the lake to which he had
escaped by swimming for his life.
21
The arrest of one and the embarrassing escape
of another Italian Jew, both associates of Carlo Rosselli, were seized upon by
elements of the Italian press, briefed by the
Agenzia Stefani
(Canosa 2000, p. 166).
Telesio Interlandi, never a typical example of Italian journalism, but nevertheless one
well-known to be close to Mussolini, thundered from the pages of
Il Tevere
on
31 March 1934:
What was the point of the polemic which we have mounted over the last few
weeks and which was so lazily welcomed by the organs of public opinion? Its
point was to establish, with the support of Jewish documents, that the Jew does
not assimilate, because in assimilation he sees a diminution of his personality
and a betrayal of his race; that the Jew demands a double nationality, even
a double country, in order to remain a productive element, that is to say to
carry out his business and to have beyond the borders a super-national centre
of attraction and propulsion; that not even the war (and Fascism) has
assimilated the Jews to the nation for which they bore arms: the Jewish press
indeed speaks of Jews who fought among them in the name of foreign
countries. All this today has the dramatic seal of OVRA; and let no-one
overlook this roll-call of names, at the risk of being ingenuous, let us remember
that the best of anti-Fascism, past and present, is of the Jewish race: from
Treves to Modigliani, from Rosselli to Morgari, the organizers of subversion
were and are of the ‘chosen people’.
22
134
G. Talbot
A couple of years later (May 1937), though still well before the race laws, Bottai had
revised his opinion on Moravia and was writing in
Regime Fascista
that Moravia’s
novels had a ‘strangely Jewish feel’ (‘
sapore stranamente semita
’) (Fabre 1998, pp.
396–397). The ground had shifted.
Both of the two most extensive police files on Moravia contain the transcript of an
intercepted letter received by him in February 1935, days before Segre’s arrest, and
signed ‘hf’, from the freelance Italian cultural correspondent of the
New York Times
Henry Furst. This transcript is marked with a stamp which reads ‘Visto da S. E.
il Capo del Governo’; that is to say, it had been read by Mussolini himself. Before
looking at the letter we need to examine another intercepted document which is
intimately connected with the regime’s response to the novel. The January 1935 issue
of
Giustizia e Liberta`
carried an anonymous article with the title ‘La proibizione
del nuovo romanzo di Alberto Moravia’ (‘The banning of Alberto Moravia’s
new novel’).
23
The article, written by Carlo Rosselli, asserted that the Prefect
of Milan had vetoed publication of the novel, as he had the power to do. In the
article Moravia is described as:
a young man who has grown up under Fascism, who has nothing in common
with ‘past regimes’ and who probably detests them no less, though perhaps
with more seriousness, than the
Duce
’s various ‘favourites’. But he is a young
man who has the difficult privilege of having ‘kept his eyes open’, for which
reason the problem of falsifying his vision so as to appeal to those in power is
simply absurd. It doesn’t even arise because the only problem, for him, is to say
things as he sees them.
It’s natural that repression should have struck him.
With this repression Mussolini makes all the more glaring the incompatibility
of Fascism and the true forces in the country. With censorship applied to
Moravia we know officially that the regime which has tolerated Benedetto
Croce, the liberal philosopher, cannot tolerate a young man except as
a corporal or squad-leader.
With this act of censorship hostilities have opened officially between the regime
and the young generation of Italy.
24
The issue of
Giustizia e Liberta`
was intercepted by the Ministry of the Interior, which
was unaware of the alleged decision of the Prefect of Milan. Bocchini sought
clarification from Milan on 11 January 1935. Milan replied that the manuscript had
been submitted for approval by the publisher Mondadori in December, as was
required by the law, and that it had been approved by the Prefect’s reader Mario
Pensuti. Therefore the allegation in
Giustizia e Liberta`
was incorrect. But it had the
effect of bringing the novel to the attention of the Ministry of the Interior, and not
just to the ministry, but to Mussolini himself. On 12 January 1935, the political
police in the Ministry of the Interior wrote to Ciano’s Press Office with instructions
from the
Duce
to prohibit publication of the novel. This, however, was not the end
of the matter. A confidential memorandum from Rome to the Prefect of Milan on
13 February 1935, instructed the latter to send to the Ministry of the Interior all
three copies of the printed book required by the law, when they were submitted,
and not to authorise distribution. In other words, the Interior took the initiative
Modern Italy
135
and decided to have the final say on whether or not the book, once printed, might be
published. A fortnight later Furst’s letter (dated Genoa, 25 February 1935) was
intercepted, transcribed and delivered to Mussolini along with an informer’s report
from Paris which indicated that intellectual opinion in Paris was against banning the
book.
25
Furst’s letter reads:
Mondadori tells me it is in press, but from another (good) source I have heard
that because of censorship you are not going to publish it?
Ubi veritas?
I
need
to
know soon because I want to write about it in the [New York] Times (my first
article on you!) but I
can’t
do two articles on you in quick succession. So if
Le ambizioni sbagliate
is about to appear I would prefer to wait; if not, I will
write about this volume. I need a subject: there’s so little coming out
worth writing about! Let me know something; have you thought about the
English
translation? You had almost promised it to me. I hope we can do
an unexpurgated edition?
It is unclear what Furst intends by ‘this volume’ but Mussolini appears to have read
it as meaning a pre-publication review of
Le ambizioni sbagliate
. Allied to that there
was a further report from
fiduciario
353 (Vincenzo Bellavia, 2 March 1935), which
details a conversation with Carlo Rosselli:
The discussions moved on to Italian literature. Rosselli mentioned the banning
of Moravia’s novel, describing it as a howler (‘grossa corbelleria’) on the
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