Material on the History of anti-Jewish Pogroms in Russia. The Society later came under attack
from the YevSek and it was abolished in 1929. The journals Jewish News and The Jewish
Chronicle were shut down in the mid-twenties. S. Dubnov’s Jewish Antiquity remained in
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publication (even after he left the USSR in 1922) but was closed in 1930. The Jewish
Ethnographical Museum functioned from 1916, but was closed in 1930.
In the 1920s, Jewish culture had two divergent fates — one in Hebrew and one in
Yiddish. Hebrew was strongly repressed and forbidden as authorities saw it as a carrier of
religion and Zionism. Before the consolidation of Soviet power in the years 1917-1919 there
were more than 180 books, brochures, and journals in Hebrew (mostly in Odessa, but also in
Kiev and Moscow.) The feeling that the fate of Hebrew was connected with the fate of the
victorious communist revolution held in the early Twenties among young people attempting to
create a revolutionary literary tribune, under whose banner they hoped to unite the creative
youthful strength of world Jewry. However at the insistence of the YevSek, Hebrew was
declared a reactionary language and already in 1919 the People’s Commissariat of Education had
forbidden the teaching of Hebrew in all educational institutions. The removal of all Hebrew
books from libraries had begun.
Yiddish culture fared much better. Yiddish was the language of the Jewish masses.
According to the 1926 census, 73 percent of Jews listed Yiddish as their mother tongue (another
source cites a figure of 66 percent – that is the Jewish population could preserve its culture in
Yiddish. Soviet authorities used this. If in the early years of Soviet power and Bolshevism the
opinion prevailed that Jews should discard their language and nationality, later the Jewish
Commissariat at the Narkomat of Nationalities, the YevSek, and the Jewish sections of the
republican narkomats of education began to build Soviet culture in Yiddish. In the Twenties
Yiddish was declared one of the official languages of Byelorussia. In Odessa of the Twenties and
even the Thirties it was a language of many government institutions, with “Jewish hours” on the
radio and court proceedings in Yiddish.
A rapid growth in Yiddish schools began in 1923 throughout the Soviet Union.
Beginning in 1923 and continuing through 1930 a program of systematic “Yiddishization” was
carried out, even forced, upon Jewish schools in the former Pale of Settlement. Many schools
were switched to Yiddish without considering the wishes of parents. In 1923 there were 495
Yiddish schools with 70,000 Jewish children, by 1928 there were 900 schools and in 1930 they
had 160,000 children. This can be partially explained by the fact that Ukrainians and
Byelorussians at this time received full cultural autonomy and saw Jewish children as potential
agents of Russification; Jewish parents didn’t want their children in Ukrainian or Byelorussian
schools and there were no more Russian schools — they had no choice but to go to Yiddish
schools. They did not study Jewish history in these schools; instead there was class war and the
Jews. (Just as in the Russian schools there was no study of Russian history, or of any history,
only “social sciences”.) Throughout the Twenties even those few elements of a specifically
Jewish education were gradually driven out of Soviet Jewish schools. By the early Thirties the
autonomously functioning system of Soviet Jewish schools had been officially done away with.
From 1918 there were independent Jewish schools of higher education — ENU (Jewish
People’s University) until 1922 in Moscow; PENU in Petrograd which became Petrograd IVEZ
(Institute of Higher Jewish Learning, one of whose founders and later Rector was Semyon
Lozinsky) boasting a number of distinguished scholars among faculty and large number of
Jewish graduates. Supported by Joint, IVEZ functioned until 1925. Jewish divisions were
established at educational science departments at Byelorussian University (1922) and at Second
Moscow State University (1926). Central Jewish CP School teaching in Yiddish was established
in 1921. Jewish educational system included special educational science technical colleges and
more than 40 industrial and agricultural training schools.
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Jewish culture continued to exist and even received no small encouragement — but on
the terms of Soviet authorities. The depths of Jewish history were closed. This took place on a
background of the destruction of Russian historical and philosophical sciences complete with
arrests of scholars.
Jewish culture of the Twenties could more accurately be called a Soviet “proletarian”
culture in Yiddish. And for that kind of Jewish culture the government was ready to provide
newspapers and theatre. Forty years later the Book of Russian Jewry gives a less than gloomy
assessment of the cultural situation of Jews in the USSR in the early Soviet years. In Moscow the
worldwide Jewish Telegraphic agency (ETA) continued to exist into the Forties as an
independent unit — the only such agency in the Soviet nation that did not come under TASS,
sending communications abroad (of course, subject to Soviet censorship.) Newspapers were
published in Yiddish, the main one being the house organ of the YevSek, the Moscow Der Amos
from 1920 to 1938. According to Dimanstein there were 34 Yiddish publishers in 1928.
Yiddish literature was encouraged, but, naturally, with a purpose: to turn Jews away from
an historical Jewish past; to show “before October” as a gloomy prologue to the epoch of
happiness and a new dawn; to smear anything religious and find in the Soviet Jew the “new
man.” Even with all this, it was so attractive to some prominent Jewish writers who had left the
country that they started to return to the USSR: poets David Gofstein (always suspected of
harboring nationalist sentiment) and Leib Kvitko (easily accommodated to Soviet environment
and become a prolific poet) returned in 1925; Perez Markish (easily understands the needs of the
party) — in 1926; Moses Kulbak and Der Nistor (the real name of the latter was Pinkhos
Kaganovich, he later wrote novel Mashber Family characterized as the most“un-Soviet and
liberal work of Jewish prose in Soviet Union) — returned in 1928. David Bergelson returned in
1929. He paid tribute to those in power: “the revolution has a right to cruelty.” (Which he,
Markish and Kvitko were to experience themselves in 1952.)
The “bourgeois” Hebrew culture was suppressed. A group of writers headed by H.N.
Byalik left for Palestine in 1921. Another group of Hebrew writers existed until the mid-30s,
occasionally publishing in foreign journals. Some of these authors were arrested and disappeared
without a trace while others managed to escape the Soviet Union.
Regarding Jewish culture expressed in Russian language, Yevseks interpreted it as the
result of government-directed efforts to assimilate Jews in Czarist Russia. Among those writing
in Yiddish, a split between “proletarian” writers and “companions” developed in mid-Twenties,
like in Soviet literature at large. Majority of mainstream authors then switched to Russian
language.
The Jewish Chamber Theater in Yiddish in Moscow flowered since 1921 at a high artistic
level with government aid (in 1925 it was transformed into the State Jewish Theater, GosET). It
traveled through Europe and became an unexpected representative of Soviet power in the eyes of
world Jewry. It made fun of pre-revolutionary ways and religious life of the shtetl. Mikhoels
excelled as an actor and in 1928 became the director.
The history of the Hebrew theater Gabima, which began before the revolution was much
more complicated. Originally supported by Lunacharsky, Gorky and Stanislavsky it was
persecuted as a “Zionist nest” by the YevSek and it took a decision by Lenin to allow it to exist.
Gabima became a government theatre. It remained the only outpost of Hebrew in the USSR,
though it was clear it had no future. The theatre critic A. Kugel said it had departed from Jewish
daily life and lost its Jewish spirit. In 1926 the troupe went on a European tour and did not
return, disappearing from history soon after.
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By contrast, the government Yiddish theatre was a real boon for Jewish theater arts in the
USSR. In the early Thirties there were 19 professional Yiddish theater groups with a training
school at GosET in Moscow, and Jewish dramatic arts studios in Kiev, Minsk and Moscow .
Here it is worth remembering the posthumous treatment of the ill-fated “Jewish Gogol”,
Semen Ushkevitch. His book Episodes, published in 1926 satirizes revolution-era Jewish
bourgeois. He died in 1927 and in 1928 the Soviet censor banned his play Simka The Rabbit
Hearted based on his earlier book. As an anti- bourgeois work it should have been fine, but
taking place in a Jewish setting and making fun of the stupidity, cowardice and greed of its
subjects, it was banned because of fears that it would cause Judeophobic feelings.
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