Evropy [European Herald], Sovremennik, Severnye Zapiski [Northern Notes], and the yearly
almanac Logos. He was one of the founders of the Jewish Democratic Group in 1904 and the
Union for Equal Rights for Jews in Russia in 1905.
He was an outstanding Kadet, member of the Central Committee of the Kadet Party. In
August 1917 he participated in the Government Conference in Moscow; from December 1917 he
was a member of the Executive Committee of the Jewish Community of Petrograd. He emigrated
to Germany in 1919; from 1922 to 1931he was I. V. Gessen’s deputy at Rul. Apart from Rul, he
also wrote for the magazine, Russkaya Mysl, the weekly Russia and the Slavs, the collection
Chisla [Dates], etc. He often lectured at émigré evenings; in 1927 in the talk titled The Eurasian
Delusion he criticised “eurasianism” as a movement contrary to the values of Russian history and
leading to ideological Bolshevism. From Nazi Germany he fled to Latvia, where he worked for
the Riga newspaper Sevodnya [Today]. He was arrested by the NKVD in June 1941 and died in
the Usollag camp (near Solikamsk) in November.
Among his works the most influential were Clownish Culture (in Nash Den, 1908), the
article Twilight of Europe (Severnye Zapiski, 1914, issue 12), which antedated much of what
would later bestow worldwide fame on Oswald Spengler, and later a book with the same title
(Berlin, 1923), Polish-Jewish Relations (1915), On Overcoming Evil (in the collection book The
Works of Russian Scholars Abroad, Berlin, 1923), The Byzantine and the Hebrew (Russkaya
Mysl, 1923, issues 1 and 2), Theses Against Dostoevsky (Chisla, volume 6, Paris, 1932),
Epigraphs (Berlin, 1927). Much of what he wrote was dismissed by contemporaries. He was too
conservative in spirit to be accepted by the progressive public. He was a sagacious thinker.
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We could not find any substantial information about D. O. Linsky (he served in the White
Army during the Civil War) or V. C. Mandel, who was an active participant in Russian political
life in 1907-1918. He emigrated to Berlin and died in 1931.)
* * *
In Russia And The Jews the behavior of Jewish emigrants during 1920s was explicitly
and harshly admonished. The authors called on their co-ethnics to “admit their own mistakes and
not to judge the Great Russia in which they had lived and which they had made a home for
hundreds of years”; to “remember how they demanded justice for themselves and how upset they
are when they are collectively accused for the acts of some individuals.” Jews should not be
afraid to acknowledge some responsibility for all that has happened. “First of all we must
determine precisely our share of responsibility and so counter anti-Semitic slander….This is
absolutely not about becoming accustomed to anti-Semitism, as claimed by some Jewish
demagogues…. This admission is vital for us, it is our moral duty. Jewry has to pick righteous
path worthy of the great wisdom of our religious teachings which will lead us to brotherly
reconciliation with the Russian people to build the Russian house and the Jewish home so they
might stand for centuries to come.”
But “we spread storms and thunder and expect to be cradled by gentle zephyrs…. I know
you will shriek that I am justifying pogroms! … I know how much these people are worth, who
think themselves salt of the earth, the arbiters of fate, and at the very least the beacons of
Israel…. They, whose every whisper is about Black Hundreds and Black Hundreders, they
themselves are dark people, their essence is black, very obscure indeed, they were never able to
comprehend the power of creativity in human history…. It is imperative for us to make less of a
display of our pain, to shout less about our losses. It is time we understood that crying and
wailing is mostly evidence of emotional infirmity, of a lack of culture of the soul. You are not
alone in this world, and your sorrow cannot fill the entire universe. When you put on a display
only your own grief, only your own pain, it shows disrespect to others’ grief, to others’
sufferings.”
That could have been said today, and to all of us.
These words cannot be obviated either by the millions lost in the prisons and camps of
the GULag, nor by the millions exterminated in the Nazi death camps.
The lectures of the authors of Russia And The Jews at that year’s National Union of Jews
were met with great indignation on the part of emigrant Jewry. Even when explicitly or tacitly
accepting the truth of the facts and the analysis, many expressed indignation or surprise that
anyone dared to bring these into the open. See, it was not the right time to speak of Jews, to
criticise them, to determine their revolutionary misdeeds and responsibility, when Jewry has just
suffered so much and may suffer even more in the future. The collection’s authors were almost
declared enemies of the [Jewish] people, the abetters of reaction and allies of the pogromists.
The Jewish Tribune replied to them from Paris a few months later: “The question of
Jewish responsibility for the Russian revolution has hitherto only been posed by anti-Semites.
But now there is a whole penitent and accusative movement, apparently we have to not only
blame others, but also admit our own faults, yet there is nothing new apart from the same old
boring name counting of Jews among Bolsheviks. Too late did Mr. Landau come to love the old
statehood; penitent Jews turned reactionaries, their words are incompatible with the dignity of
the Jewish people and are completely irresponsible.”
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Especially offensive was this attempt to separate the popular anti-Semitism from the
official one, attempting to prove that “the people, the society, the country – the entire populace
hates the Jews and considers them the true culprit responsible for all national woes; just like
those who connived the pogroms, they repeat the old canard about the popular anger.”
Sometimes it descended into the outright abuse: “This group of Berlin journalists and
activists, which has nearly disappeared from the Jewish public life by now craves to put
themselves into limelight again, and for that they could think of no better way than to attack their
own compatriots, Russian Jews, This tiny group of loyalists Jews are blinded by a desire to turn
the wheel of history backwards, they write indecencies, give comical advice, take on themselves
the ridiculous role of healers to cure national wounds. They should remember that sometimes it
is better to stay quiet.”
One sophisticated modern critic could find a better assessment for that collection than a
severe hysteria. Both that attempt and their later journey are genuine tragedies, in his opinion,
and he explains this tragedy as a self-hatred complex.
Yet was Bikerman hateful when he wrote, on his “later tragic journey,” that: “The Jewish
people is not a sect, not an order, but a whole people, dispersed over the world but united in
itself; it has raised up the banner of peaceful labour and has gathered around this banner, as
around the symbol of godly order”?
However, it is not true that European or émigré Jews did not at all hark to such
explanations or warnings. A similar discussion had taken place a little earlier, in 1922. In the re-
established Zionist publication Rassvet the nationalist G. I. Shekhtman expressed his
incomprehension at how the intelligentsia of other nationalities could be anything other than
nationalistic. An intelligentsia is invariably connected to its own nationality and feels its pain. A
Jew cannot be a Russian democrat, but naturally a Jewish democrat. “I do not recognise dual
national or democratic loyalties.” And if the Russian intelligentsia “does not identify with its
nationality” (Herzen), it is simply because until now it “has not had the opportunity or need to
feel sharp pains over its national identity, to worry about it. But that has changed now.” Now the
Russian intelligentsia “has to cast aside its aspirations to be a universal All-Russian
intelligentsia, and instead to regard itself as the Great Russian democracy.”
It was difficult to counter. The gauntlet was picked up by P. N. Milyukov, though not
very confidently. We remember (see Chapter 11) that back in 1909 he had also expressed horror
at the unveiling of this stinging, unpleasant national question “who benefits?” But now this new
awkward situation (and not a change in Milyukov’s views), when so many Russian intellectuals
in emigration suddenly realized that they lost their Russia, forced Milyukov to amend his
previous position.
He replied to Shekhtman, though in a rather ambiguous manner and not in his own highly
popular Poslednie Novosti, but in the Jewish Tribune with a much smaller circulation, to the
effect that a Russian Jew could and had to be a Russian democrat. Milyukov treaded carefully:
“But when this demand is fulfilled, and there appears a new national face of Russian democracy
(the Great Russian),” well, wouldn’t Shekhtman be first to get scared at the prospect of
“empowerment of ethnically conscious Great Russian Democracy with imperial ambition?” Do
we then need these phantoms? Is this what we wish to ruin our relations over?
The émigrés lived in an atmosphere of not just verbal tension. There was a sensational
murder trial in Paris in 1927 of a clock-maker, Samuel Shvartsbard, who lost his whole family in
the pogroms in Ukraine, and who killed Petliura with five bullets. (Izvestia sympathetically
reported on the case and printed Shvartsbard’s portrait.) The defence raised the stakes claiming
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that the murder was a justified revenge for Petliura’s pogroms: “The defendant wished and felt a
duty to raise the issue of anti-Semitism before the world’s conscience.” The defence called many
witnesses to testify that during the Civil War Petliura had been personally responsible for
pogroms in Ukraine. The prosecution suggested that the murder had been ordered by Cheka.
“Shvartsbard, agitated, called out from his place: ‘the witness doesn’t want to admit that I acted
as a Jew, and so claims I’m a Bolshevik.’”
Shvartsbard was acquitted by the French court. Denikin, a leading White general during
the Civil War was mentioned at that trial, and Shvartsbard’s lawyer proclaimed: “If you wish to
bring Denikin to trial, I am with you. I would have defended the one who would have taken
revenge upon Denikin with the same passionate commitment as I am here defending the man
who had taken revenge upon Petliura.”
And as Denikin lived in Paris without guards, anyone wishing to take revenge upon him
had an open road. However Denikin was never put on trial. (A similar murder happened later in
Moscow in 1929, when Lazar Kolenberg shot the former White general Slashchev, who after the
Civil War returned to Russia and served in Soviet military, for doing nothing to stop pogroms in
Nikolayev. During the investigation, the accused was found to be mentally incompetent to stand
trial and released.
During Shvartsbard’s trial the prosecutor drew a parallel to another notorious case (that
of Boris Koverda): for Petliura had previously lived in Poland, but “you [speaking to
Shvartsbard] did not attempt to kill him there, as you knew that in Poland you would be tried by
military tribunal.” In 1929, a young man, Boris Koverda, also “wishing to present a problem
before the world’s conscience,” had killed the Bolshevik sadist Voikov; he was sentenced to ten
years in jail and served his full term.
A White émigré from Revolutionary Terrorist Boris Savinkov’s group, Captain V. F.
Klementiev, told me that in Warsaw at that time former Russian officers were abused as “White-
Guard rascals” and that they were not served in Jewish-owned shops. Such was the hostility, and
not just in Warsaw. Russian émigrés all over Europe were flattened by scarcity, poverty,
hardship, and they quickly tired of the showdown over “who is more to blame?” Anti-Jewish
sentiments among them abated in the second half of the 1920s. During these years Vasily
Shulgin wrote: “Are not our visa ordeals remarkably similar to the oppression experienced by
Jews in the Pale of Settlement? Aren’t our Nansen passports [internationally recognized identity
cards first issued by the League of Nations to stateless refugees], which are a sort of wolf ticket
obstructing movement, reminiscent of the Jewish religion label, which we stamped in Jewish
passports in Russia, thereby closing many doors to them? Do we not resort to all kinds of
middleman jobs when we are unable to attain, because of our peculiar position, a civil servant
post or a certain profession?Are we not gradually learning to work around laws that are
inconvenient for us, precisely as Jews did with our laws, and for which we criticized them?”
Yet during these same years anti-Jewish sentiments were on the rise in the USSR and
were even reported in the Soviet press, causing distress among Jewish émigrés. So in May 1928
a public debate on anti-Semitism was organized in Paris among them. A report of it was placed
in the Milyukov’s newspaper. (Bikerman’s and Pasmanik’s group, already non-active, did not
participate.)
The formal reason for the debate was “a strong rise of Judæphobia in Russia, a
phenomenon that periodically occurs there.” The Socialist Revolutionary N. D. Avksentiev
chaired the debate, and there were more Russians than Jews among the public. Mark Slonim
explained that “the long oppressed Russian Jewry, having finally attained freedom, has dashed to
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secure formerly prohibited positions,” and this annoys Russians. In essence, the past fatefully
determined the present” “Bad things” of the past (Czarist times) resulted in bad consequences. S.
Ivanovich stated that Jews were now tormented in the USSR, because it has become impossible
to torment “the bourgeois” thanks to the NEP. But what is worrying is that the Russian
intelligentsia in the USSR, although neutral on the Jewish question, now takes the liberty to
think: good, “it will begin with anti-Semitism, and lead to Russian freedom. What a dangerous
and foolish illusion.”
Such apologetic ideas outraged the next orator, V. Grosman: “It is as if Jewry stands
accused!” The question needs to be considered more deeply: “There is no reason to distinguish
Soviet anti-Semitism from the anti-Semitism of old Russia,” that is to say there is still the same
Black Hundredism so dear to Russian hearts. “This is not a Jewish question, but a Russian one, a
question of Russian culture.”
(But if it is so quintessentially Russian, entirely Russian, inherently Russian problem,
then what can be done? What need then for a mutual dialogue?)
The author of the debate report, S. Litovtsev, regretted post factum that it was necessary
to find for the debate “several honest people, brave enough to acknowledge their anti-Semitism
and frankly explain why they are anti-Semites … Who would say simply, without evasiveness: ‘I
don’t like this and that about Jews…’ Alongside there should have been several equally candid
Jews who would say: ‘and we don’t like this and that about you…’ Rest assured, such an honest
and open exchange of opinions, with goodwill and a desire for mutual comprehension, would be
really beneficial for both Jews and Russians – and for Russia….”
Shulgin replied to this: “Now, among Russian émigrés, surely one needs more bravery to
declare oneself a philo-Semite.” He extended his answer into a whole book, inserting Litovtsev’s
question into the title, What We Don’t Like About Them. Shulgin’s book was regarded as anti-
Semitic, and the proposed “interexchange of views” never took place. Anyway, the impending
catastrophe, coming from Germany, soon took the issue of any debate off the table.
A Union of Russian-Jewish Intelligentsia was created in Paris as if in the attempt to
preserve a link between the two cultures. Yet it soon transpired that life in exile had created a
chasm between fathers and sons, and the latter no longer understand what a Russian-Jewish
intelligentsia is. So the fathers sadly acknowledged that the Russian Jews, who used to lead
global Jewry in spiritual art and in the nation building, now virtually quit the stage. Before the
war, the Union had managed to publish only the first issue of collection Jewish world. During the
war, those who could, fled across the ocean and untiringly created the Union of Russian Jews in
New York City, and published the second issue of the Jewish World. In the 1960s, they
published the Book of Russian Jewry in two volumes, about pre- and post-revolutionary Jewish
life in Russia. The bygone life in the bygone Russia still attracted their minds. In this work I cite
all these books with gratitude and respect.
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