Conclusion the list of used literature internet resources

CONTENT
Y

INTRODUCTION 1
1.The phonology of English consonants 4
3. Meanings and Examples of consonants 17

CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………….….25
THE LIST OF USED LITERATURE………………………………………....….27
INTERNET RESOURCES………………...………………………………………28

INTRODUCTION

The first piece of information we need to know about a consonant is its voicing — is it voiced or voiceless? In the video about how humans produce speech, we felt the difference between voiced and voiceless sounds: for voiced consonants like [z] and [v], the vocal folds vibrate. For voiceless sounds like [s] and [f], the vocal folds are held apart to let air pass through.
The second thing we need to know about consonants is where the obstruction in the vocal tract occurs; we call that the place of articulation.
If we obstruct our vocal tract at the lips, like for the sounds [b] and [p], the place of articulation is bilabial.
The consonants [f] and [v] are made with the top teeth on the bottom lip, so these are called labiodental sounds.
Move your tongue to the ridge above and behind your top teeth and make a [t] or [d]; these are alveolar sounds. Many people also make the sound [s] with the tongue at the alveolar ridge. Even though there is quite a bit of variation in how people make the sound [s], it still gets classified as an alveolar sound.
If you’re making a [s] and move the tongue farther back, not quite to the soft palate, the sound turns into a [ʃ], which is called post-alveolar, meaning it’s a little bit behind the alveolar ridge. You also sometimes see [ʃ] and [ʒ] called “alveo-palatal” or “palato-alveolar” sounds because the place of articulation is between the alveolar ridge and the palate.
So the other name for stops is plosives. English has two bilabial stops, [p] and [b], two alveolar stops, [t] and [d], and two velar stops [k] and [ɡ].
It’s also possible to obstruct the airflow in the mouth but allow air to flow through the nasal cavity. English has three nasal sounds at those same three places of articulation: the bilabial nasal [m], the alveolar nasal [n], and the velar nasal [ŋ]. Because airflow is blocked in the mouth for these, they are sometimes called nasal stops, in contrast to the plosives which are oral stops.
Instead of blocking airflow completely, it’s possible to hold the articulators close together and allow air to flow turbulently through the small space. Sounds with this kind of turbulence are called fricatives. English has labiodental fricatives [f] and [v], dental fricatives made with the tongue between the teeth, [θ] and [ð], alveolar fricatives [s] and [z], post-alveolar fricatives [ʃ] and [ʒ], and the glottal fricative [h]. Other languages also have fricatives at other places of articulation.
If you look at the official IPA chart for consonants, you’ll see that it’s organized in a very useful way.
A trill involves bringing the articulators together and vibrating them rapidly. North American English doesn’t have any trills, but Scottish English often has a trilled [r]. You also hear trills in Spanish, French and Italian.
A flap (or tap) is a very short sound that is a bit like a stop because it has a complete obstruction of the vocal tract, but the obstruction is so short that air pressure doesn’t build up. Most people aren’t aware of the flap but it’s actually quite common in Canadian English. You can hear it in the middle of these words metal and medal. Notice that even though they’re spelled with “t” and “d”, they sound exactly the same when we pronounce them in ordinary speech. If you’re trying hard to be extra clear, you might say [mɛtəl] or [mɛdəl], but ordinarily, that “t” or “d” in the middle of the word just becomes an alveolar flap, where the tongue taps very briefly at the alveolar ridge but doesn’t allow air pressure to build up. You can also hear a flap in the middle of words like middle, water, bottle, kidding, needle. The symbol for the alveolar flap [ɾ] looks a bit like the letter “r” but it represents that flap sound.
When we’re talking about English sounds, we also need to mention affricates. If you start to say the word cheese, you’ll notice that your tongue is in the position to make a [t] sound. But instead of releasing that alveolar stop completely, like you would in the word tease, you release it only partially and turn it into a fricative, [tʃ]. Same thing for the word jam: you start off the sound with the stop [d], and then release the stop but still keep the articulators close together to make a fricative [dʒ]. Affricates aren’t listed on the IPA chart because they’re a double articulation, a combination of a stop followed by a fricative. English has only the two affricates, [tʃ] and [dʒ], but German has a bilabial affricate [pf] and many Slavic languages have the affricates [ts] and [dz].
To sum up, all consonants involve some obstruction in the vocal tract. We classify consonants according to three pieces of information:
the voicing: is it voiced or voiceless,
the place of articulation: where is the vocal tract obstructed, and
the manner of articulation: how is the vocal tract obstructed.
These three pieces of information make up the articulatory description for each speech sound, so we can talk about the voiceless labiodental fricative [f] or the voiced velar stop [ɡ], and so on.
The subject of my course paper:" Classification of consonants”.
The problem of my work is concerned with Classification of Fricative Consonants for Speech Enhancement in Hearing Devices.
The aim of my course paper is study deeply investigate the works of phoneticians and analyze classification of consonants
In this work it is necessary to solve the following primary objectives:
Theoretically to comprehend and approve importance of studying modification of speech sounds in English.
During the work the following methods of research were applied:
1. The analysis of the scientific literature on a given theme;
2. The analysis of programs and internet resources such as official sites of foreign authors and websites of both domestic and foreign universities;
Practical value of the given theme is included in the formation of modern scientific resources for language learners and students of the Higher Education.
This course paper consists of the introductory, four chapters, conclusion and the list of used literature.

1. The phonology of English consonants

Consonants are produced by pushing air up from the lungs and out through the mouth and/or nose. Airflow is disrupted by obstructions made by various combinations of vocal articulator movements, so that audible friction is produced.

They are described in terms of (1) voicing, (2) place of articulation and (3) manner of articulation.
Voicing refers to the presence or absence of vocal vibration during speech sound production. In a voiced sound, there is vocal fold vibration and an audible 'buzzing' sound. In an unvoiced sound, there is no vocal fold vibration.
Compare the first consonant in thimble (represented by /θ/ with the first sound in this (represented by /ð/). Again, try placing your finger and thumb on your throat whilst producing the sound. In thimble the consonant /θ/ is unvoiced because there is an absence of vocal fold vibration. In this, the consonant /ð/ is voiced because there is a presence of vocal fold vibration.
Now take the following pairs of phonemes (you may need to look at your copy of the phonetic alphabet). In each pair, one sound is voiced and one sound is unvoiced. Which is which?
/p/ and /b/
/t/ and /d/
/ʤ/ and /tʃ/
/g/ and /k/
/f/ and /v/
/z/ and /s/
/ʃ/ and /ʒ/
Place of articulation
The place of articulation is the physical location in the vocal tract that a phoneme is produced in, and the kinds of articulatory movements that are involved in producing a sound. Here is a diagram of the vocal tract:
Bilabial consonants are produced at the lips (e.g. /b/).
Labio-dental consonants are produced with the lower lip and the upper teeth (e.g. /f/).
Dental consonants are produced when the tongue is placed between the teeth (e.g. /θ/, /ð/).Alveolar consonants are produced with the tip of the tongue and the alveolar ridge (the hard, bony ridge behind the teeth) (e.g. /s/).Post-alveolar sounds are produced with the tip of the tongue and the roof of the mouth (specifically, the area in between the alveolar ridge and the soft palate). (e.g. /ʃ/, /ʒ/).Palatal sounds are produced between the tongue and the hard palate (e.g. /j/).Velar sounds are produced between the back of the tongue and the velum (e.g. /k/, /g/).
So far we have said that consonants can be defined by (1) their voicing, and (2) their place of articulation. Our final level of classification is to do with the manner or process of articulation. This is related to the degree of closure (complete closure → close approximation → open approximation).
Plosives involve a complete closure, where the vocal articulators fully meet and air flow is stopped. This creates the 'explosion' of sound when the closure is released, hence the name 'plosive'. The plosive sounds in English are: /p b t d k g/.Fricatives involve a close approximation, where the vocal articulators do not fully meet and air flow is forced through a narrow passage. This creates the friction sound, hence the name 'fricative'. The fricative sounds in English are: /f v s z θ ð ʃ ʒ/.Approximants involve an open approximation, where the vocal articulators are still close but not enough to create friction. The approximant sounds in English are: /j r w/.
Nasal sounds are produced by air coming out through the nose and mouth. The nasal sounds in English are /m n ŋ/.
Bringing it all together
The table below shows us the three ways of defining vowel sounds. For each cell, voiceless sounds are on the left, and voiced sounds are on the right. The columns show the place of articulation and the rows show the manner of articulation. So, we can use the table and work out that /s/ is a voiceless alveolar fricative! that word-final 's are like ghosts: sometimes you see them, sometimes you do not. You "see" them when they are followed by a vowel-initial morpheme like -ing, -er/-or, -ee, -y, etc. (those 's are often called Linking-R), but they disappear when they are final or when they are followed by a consonant- initial morpheme like -(e)d (the is mostly silent), -ment, -ly, etc., as in retirement and rarely in column (e) above. Hence the difference between tire/ tired vs tiring, bore vs boring, err vs error, refer vs referee, and fur vs furry. Note that it never matters whether the is spelt as a single letter or double . Also, remember that non-rhotic accents are named so not because they do not pronounce any sounds, but because they do not pronounce certain orthographic 's, as opposed to rhotic accents, which pronounce all 's that are present in spelling. In fact, there are some cases when rhotic speakers do not pronounce an , and there is no in spelling, however, most non-rhotic speakers (perhaps except only for conservative RP, i.e., RP spoken by older generations) pronounce one, e.g., in sawing ,gnawing , rumbaing , subpoenaing ,summoning sy to appear in a lawcourt', guffawing 'giving a noisy laugh', baahing (of sheep), blaher 'more mediocre'. This is
called Intrusive-R. Intrusive-R is only found in non-rhotic accents, and it only appears at (certain) morpheme boundaries, after certain vowels. We learn more about this in
An interesting consequence of R-dropping in non-rhotic accents is that new homophones emerge, so sore sounds the same as saw, pour sounds the same as paw, aren't sounds the same as aunt. Further examples include farther – father, fort – fought, source – sauce, more – maw, tuner – tuna, sort – sought, court – caught, spar – spa, career – Korea.When a word ends in an , it can not only "escape" being dropped
when a vowel-initial suffix is attached to the word as in the examples in column (g) in the chart above, but in fact any vowel-initial morpheme following the word is able to produce the same effect, even a following vowel-initial word. Therefore, Linking-R is heard in phrases like more exciting, your eyes, (to) err is (human), care about, centre of, tire us, etc. This can even happen between two sentences, e.g., He doesn't care. I do or There's a spider. I'm scared. Similarly, under the same conditions as between a word
and a suffix, Intrusive-R appears between the two words in visa application, (the) idea is, (the) Shah of (Persia), schwa insertion, law and (order), Gloria Estefan, (cats) claw at (the furniture), (the giant) panda is (an endangered species), etc., and between the two sentences in Try that sofa. It's softer or Call Maria. I need her. Further homophones arise, e.g., vanilla ice – vanilla rice, Amanda Avon – Amanda Raven, the pa is broken – the spar is broken, put the tuna in the box – put the tuner in the box. Such homophones are only possible in the non-rhotic accents of English exhibiting Intrusive-R. Now we turn to another consonant, . As exemplified by the word talk mentioned above, the letter is also sometimes not pronounced, but this time we are only concerned with the sound , that is, when the is pronounced. In several dialects of English, it has two possible pronunciations, i.e., two allophones. In certain positions, the /l/ is the same
alveolar lateral as in Hungarian; the traditional name of this sound is clear-L (or light-L). In other positions, however, it becomes velarized, that is, its articulation involves the movement of the tongue towards the soft palate (velum); this is usually called dark-L. Roughly, in RP the /l/ is only pronounced clear when followed by a vowel, and it becomes dark (the IPAIn articulatory phonetics, a consonant is a speech sound that is articulated with complete or partial closure of the vocal tract. Examples are [p] and [b], pronounced with the lips; [t] and [d], pronounced with the front of the tongue; [k] and [g], pronounced with the back of the tongue; [h], pronounced in the throat; [f], [v], and [s], pronounced by forcing air through a narrow channel (fricatives); and [m] and [n], which have air flowing through the nose (nasals). Contrasting with consonants are vowels.
Since the number of speech sounds in the world's languages is much greater than the number of letters in any one alphabet, linguists have devised systems such as the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) to assign a unique and unambiguous symbol to each attested consonant. The English alphabet has fewer consonant letters than the English language has consonant sounds, so digraphs like ⟨ch⟩, ⟨sh⟩, ⟨th⟩, and ⟨ng⟩ are used to extend the alphabet, though some letters and digraphs represent more than one consonant. For example, the sound spelled ⟨th⟩ in "this" is a different consonant from the ⟨th⟩ sound in "thin". (In the IPA, these are [ð] and [θ], respectively.) practical formula of this paper helps the readers (EFL
earners) how can they work by themselves to explain and realize the articulation of the English consonant sounds. However, the theoretical material is necessary for anyone who needs to understand the principles of regulating these sounds in spoken English. Most of the readers (EFL students) are aware of the importance of linguistics topics, but they do not have sufficient basic knowledge to understand these topics, especially Phonetics and Phonology. It is an endeavor to show the general categorization existing in consonants on the honological aspects. Most of the time, there are three labels that are iven a little awareness in instructors’ lectures to EFL students as if they existed worthless. Thus, while explaining the English consonant sounds, it is recommended that the EFL instructors should pay equal awareness to these labels with different class activities. The quantity of data displayed in some figures with (151) examples as part of direc t education. These data were procured from Google Scholars, Google
Consonants in English
Consonant sounds are probably classified as being given a denominated VPM-
label. (VPM) stands for Voicing, Place of articulation, and Manner of articulation
(see table 1 on page 9) (Vocroix, 2021; Rinartha et al., 2018). Voicing signifies that
the vocal folds are used; the sound is voiceless if they are not used. The place of articulation relates to the place where the airflow will be more or less obstructed. The manner of articulation is related to the nature of the obstruction (Forel & Puskás, 2005).
Voicing is whether the vocal folds are vibrating through the production of consonants. If the vocal folds vibrate during the production of the consonant, it is said to be voiced (O'Connor, 1980). This vibration can be felt if your hand is placed outside the throat as a sound is uttered; if there is no vibration, it is said to be voiceless (Aitchison, 2003). Consonant sounds are classified according to the criteria of voiced and voiceless: Voiced: when the sound is articulated with the vibration of the adducted vocal cords in the larynx (see figure 1). In English, the following fifteen consonants are voiced: /b, d, g, v, ᶞ, z, ʒ, l, r, j, w, dʒ, n, m, ŋ/ (Roach, 1998). Figure 1. The vocal folds are adducted and vibrated

2. Classifications of consonants

Articulatory and physiological classification of English consonants
I. According to the work of the vocal cords and the force of exhalation the English consonants are subdivided into voiced and voiceless. Voiced consonants are: /b, d, g, z, v, ?, 3, m, n, ?, 1, r, j, w, d3/. Voiceless consonants are: /p, t, k, s, f, ?, h, ?, t?/.
The force of exhalation and the degree of muscular tension are greater in the production of
voiceless consonants therefore they are called by the Latin word “fortis”, which means “strong,
energetic”. Voiced consonants are called “lenis”, “soft, weak”, because the force of exhalation
and the degree of muscular tension in their articulation are weaker, e.g.
FORTIS LENIS
/p/ pipe /b/ Bible
/t/ tight /d/ died
/k/ cake /g/ gag
/ t?/church /d3/judge
/f/ five /v/ vibrant
/ ? / three / ? / thee
/s/ soup /z/ zoo
/?/ pressure /3/ pleasure
The English consonants /h, m, n, ?, 1, w, j, r/ do not enter into fortis-lenis opposition which can
be represented by the following minimal pairs:
Pat-bat, tip-dip, come-gum, etc.
II. According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation (the
place of obstruction) consonants are classified into: 1) labial, 2) lingual, 3) glottal.
This principle provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: labial vs. lingual (what-hot), lingual vs. glottal (that-hat), labial vs. glottal (foam-home).
Labial consonants are subdivided into: a) bilabial and b) labio-dental. Bilabial consonants are produced with both lips. They are the /p, b, m, w/. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth. They are /f, v/.
Labial consonants enter into bilabial vs. labiodental opposition which can be represented by the following minimal pairs:
Wear-fair, mice-vice, etc.
Lingual consonants are subdivided into: a) forelingual, b) mediolingual and c) backlingual.
Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. According to the position of the tip of the tongue they may be: apical articulated by the tip of the tongue against either the upper teeth or the alveolar ridge /t, d, s, z, ?, ?, ?, 3, t?, d3, n, l/ and cacuminal /r/. According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be: (1) interdental / ?, ? /, (2) alveolar /t, d, s, n, l/, (3) post-alveolar /r/, (4) palato-alveolar /?, 3, t?, d3/.
Within the group of forelingual apical can be opposed to cacuminal: dim-rim;oppositions can be found among interdental, alveolar, post-alveolar and palato-alveolar: same-shame (alveolar vs. palato-alveolar), those-rose (interdental vs. post-alveolar), etc.
Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always palatal. Palatal consonants are articulated with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate /j/.
Backlingual consonants are also called velar, they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate “velum” /k, g, ? /.
Within the group of lingual oppositions can be found among forelingual, mediolingual and backlingual: yet-get (medio vs. back), yes-less (medio vs. fore), tame-game (fore vs. back).
The glottal consonant /h/ is articulated in the glottis.
III. The classification of consonants according to the manner of noise production from the viewpoint of the closure, which is formed in their articulation may be:
1) complete closure, then occlusive consonants 1. noise /p, b, t, d, k, g/ and 2.sonorants /m,n, ? / are produced; within the group of occlusive noise can be opposed to sonorant(pine-mine). 2) incomplete closure, then constrictive consonants 1. noise /f, v, ?, ? , h, s, z, ? , 3/ and 2. sonorants / w, j, 1, r/; within the group of constrictive noise can be opposed to sonorant (fine- wine)3) the combination of the two closures, then occlusive-constrictive, or affricates, areproduced / t?, d3 /.
This principle provides the basis for the following distinctive oppositions: occlusive vs. constrictive (came-lame), constrictive vs. affricate (fail-jail), occlusive vs. affricate (must-just).IV. According to the position of the soft palate all consonants are subdivided into oral and nasal. When the soft palate is raised and the air from the lungs gets into the pharynx and then into the mouth cavity, oral consonants are produced /p, t, k, f, v/ etc. When the soft palate is lowered and the air on its way out passes through the nasal cavity, nasal consonants are produced: /m, n, ? /.On the articulatory level the consonants change:
In the degree of noise.
In the manner of articulation.
In the place of articulation.
1. THE DEGREE OF NOISE
According to the degree of noise English consonants are divided into two big classes:
A. In the production of noise consonants there is a noise component characteristic. Noise consonant sounds vary:
in the work of the vocal cords;
in the degree of force of articulation.
According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiceless and voiced.
When the vocal cords are brought together and vibrate we hear voice. Voiced consonants are: [b]‚ [d]‚ [g]‚ [v]‚ [z]‚ [ʒ]‚ [ð]‚ [ʤ].If the vocal cords are apart and do not vibrate we hear only noise and the consonants are voiceless. Voiceless consonants are: [p]‚ [t]‚ [k]‚ [f]‚ [s]‚ [∫]‚ [Ө]‚ [ʧ]‚ [h].The degree of noise may vary because of the force of articulation. Strong noise consonants (fortis) are produced with more muscular energy and stronger breath effort. They are: [p]‚ [t]‚ [k]‚ [f]‚ [s]‚ [∫]‚ [Ө]‚ [ʧ]‚ [h]. Weak noise consonants (lenis) are produced with a relatively weak breath effort. They are: [b]‚ [d]‚ [g]‚ [v]‚ [z]‚ [ʒ]‚ [ð]‚ [ʤ].B. Sonorants (or sonorous consonants) are made with tone prevailing over noise because of a rather wide air passage. They are: [m]‚ [n]‚ [ŋ]‚ [l]‚ [r]‚ [w]‚ [j].
2. THE MANNER OF ARTICULATION
The manner of articulation of consonants is determined by the type of obstruction. The obstructions may be complete, incomplete and momentary.When the obstruction is complete the organs of speech are in contact and the air stream meets a closure in the mouth or nasal cavities as in the production of [p]‚ [b]‚ [t]‚ [d]‚ [k]‚ [g]‚ [ʧ]‚ [ʤ]‚ [m]‚ [n]‚ [ŋ].In case of an incomplete obstruction the active organ of speech moves towards the point of articulation, and the air stream goes through the narrowing between them as in the production of [f]‚ [v]‚ [s]‚ [z]‚ [∫]‚ [ʒ]‚ [Ө]‚ [ð]‚ [h]‚ [l]‚ [r]‚ [w]‚ [j].
Momentary obstructions are formed in the production of the Russian sonorants [p]‚ [p']‚ when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge.
According to the manner of articulation consonants may be of four groups:
Occlusive.
Constrictive.
Occlusive-constrictive (affricates).
Rolled.
1. Occlusive consonants are sounds in the production of which the air stream meets a complete obstruction in the mouth. Occlusive noise consonants are called s t o p s, because the breath is completely stopped at some point of articulation, and then it is released with a slight explosion, that is why they are also called p l o s i v e s.According to the work of the vocal cords stops may be voiced and voiceless. Occlusive voiced consonants are: [b]‚ [d]‚ [g]. Occlusive voiceless consonants are: [p]‚ [t]‚ [k]. According to the force of articulation English voiced stops are weak (lenis), voiceless are strong (fortis).Occlusive sonorants are also made with a complete obstruction, but the soft palate is lowered, and the air stream escapes through the nose, so they are nasal : [m]‚ [n]‚ [ŋ].
2. Constrictive consonants are those in the production of which the air stream meets an incomplete obstruction in the resonator, so the air passage is constricted.
Constrictive noise consonants are called f r i c a t i v e s, in the articulation of which the air passage is constricted, and the air escapes through the narrowing with friction. According to the work of the vocal cords they may be voiced ([v]‚ [z]‚ [ʒ]‚ [ð]) and voiceless ([f]‚ [s]‚ [∫]‚ [Ө]‚ [h]). According to the force of articulation voiced fricatives are weak (lenis), voiceless fricatives are strong (fortis).Constrictive sonorants are also made with an incomplete obstruction, but with a rather wide air passage, so tone prevails over noise: [l]‚ [r]‚ [w]‚ [j]. They are all oral, because in their production the soft palate is raised.This principle provides the basis for the following distinctive opposition: oral vs. nasal(sick-sing).As it has been pointed out the main method of establishing phonemes of a given language is the commutation test or discovery of minimal pairs through which the establishment of the phonemic status of each sound is accomplished. It helps to establish 24 phonemes of consonants:/p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v, ?, ? , s, z, ?, 3, h, t? , d3, m, n, ? , w, r, j, l/.3. Occlusive-constrictive consonants or affricates are noise consonant sounds produced with a complete obstruction which is slowly released, and the air escapes from the mouth with some friction. There are only two occlusive-constrictives in English: [ʧ] which is voiceless and strong (fortis) and [ʤ] which is voiced and weak (lenis). Affricates are oral according to the position of the soft palate.
4. Rolled consonants are sounds pronounced with periodical momentary obstructions when the tip of the tongue taps quickly several times against the teeth ridge and vibrates in the air stream. They are the Russian [p]‚ [p'].
3. THE PLACE OF ARTICULATION
The place of articulation is determined by the active organ of speech against the point of articulation. There may be one place of articulation or focus, or two places of articulation or foci when active organs of speech contact with two points of articulation. In the first case consonants are called u n i c e n t r a l, in the second they are b i c e n t r a l.
According to the position of the active organ of speech against the point of articulation (i. e. the place of articulation) consonants may be:
Labial.
Lingual.
Glottal.
1. Labial consonants are made by the lips. They may be b i l a b i a l and l a b i o – d e n t a l. Bilabial consonants are produced when both lips are active: [p]‚ [b]‚ [m]‚ [w]. Labio-dental consonants are articulated with the lower lip against the edge of the upper teeth: [f]‚ [v].
2. Lingual consonants are classified into f o r e l i n g u a l, m e d i o l i n g u a l and b a c k l i n g u a l.
Forelingual consonants are articulated with the tip or the blade of the tongue. They differ in the position of the tip of the tongue. According to its work they may be:
a p i c a l, if the tip of the tongue is active: [t]‚ [d]‚ [s]‚ [z]‚ [∫]‚ [ʒ]‚ [Ө]‚ [ð]‚ [ʧ]‚ [ʤ]‚ [n]‚ [l];d o r s a l, if the blade of the tongue takes part in the articulation; the tip is passive and lowered. In English there are no dorsal consonants;c a c u m i n a l, if the tip of the tongue is at the back part of the teeth ridge, but a depression is formed in the blade of the tongue: [r].According to the place of obstruction forelingual consonants may be:
interdental;
dental;
alveolar;
post-alveolar;
palato-alveolar.
I n t e r d e n t a l consonants or interdentals are made with the tip of the tongue projected between the teeth: [Ө]‚ [ð].D e n t a l consonants or dentals are produced with the blade of the tongue against the upper teeth: e.g. the Russian [т], [д].
A l v e o l a r consonants or alveolars are articulated with the tip against the upper teeth ridge: [t]‚ [d]‚ [s]‚ [z]‚ [n]‚ [l].P o s t – a l v e o l a r consonants or post-alveolars are made when the tip or the blade of the tongue is against the back part of the teeth ridge or just behind it: [r].P a l a t o – a l v e o l a r consonants or palato-alveolars are made with the tip or the blade of the tongue against the teeth ridge and the front part of the tongue raised towards the hard palate, thus having two places of articulation or foci: [ʧ]‚ [ʤ]‚ [∫]‚ [ʒ].+Mediolingual consonants are produced with the front part of the tongue. They are always p a l a t a l. Palatals are made with the front part of the tongue raised high to the hard palate: [j].Backlingual consonants are also called velar, because they are produced with the back part of the tongue raised towards the soft palate: [k]‚ [g]‚ [ŋ].3. The glottal consonant [h] is articulated in the glottis

3. Meanings and Examples of consonants

A consonant sound is made by closing the vocal tract (such as tongue, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate), either completely or partially.List of consonants and examples
Here are the 24 consonant sounds, with examples:
/ p / as in p en, attem p t, and to p .
/ b / as in b rain, a b stract, and ca b .
/ t / as in t ell, realis t ic, and walke d .
/ d / as in d ad, un d er, and be d .
/ tʃ / as in ch urch, kit ch en, and spee ch .
/ dʒ / as in J ordan, an g el, and chan g e.
/ k / as in k ite, te c hnical, and roc k .
/ g / as in g irl, fin g er, and gan g .
/ f / as in ph oto, co ff ee, and lau gh .
/ v / as in v an, con v ince and o f .
/ θ / as in th ink, a th lete and mon th .
/ ð / as in th is, bro th er and clo th e.
/ s / as in s it, ba s ic, and dan c e.
/ z / as in z ebra, cra z y / cou s in, and watche s .
/ ʃ / as in sh ip, pre ss ure / na tio n / o c ean, and wi sh .
/ ʒ / as in g enre, ca s ual / lei s ure / vi si o n, and bei ge .
/ m / as in m other, co mm on, and ho m e.
/ n / as in n eed, di nn er, and fu n .
/ ŋ / used for the -ing form or s ing .
/ h / as in h at, w h o and be h ave.
/ l / as in l ion, he l p, and travel l .
/ r / as in r ight, w r ong, and ca r (standard American English pronunciation) .
/ w / as in w ait / o ne, s w im and qu it.
/ j / as in y ellow, c u te, and f e w.
You may notice that:
Certain consonants can be combined. For example, ch is usually pronounced / tʃ /, which combines / t / and / ʃ /: chat = / tʃæt /.And here's some trivia for you: in “Pacific Ocean” every c is pronounced differently: Pacific Ocean = [pəˈsɪfɪk ˈəʊʃən]. The reason this happens could be historical.
Consonants have three characteristics:
Voicing refers to the activity of the vocal cords . The organs related to voicing are:
The vocal cords .
The glottis .
The larynx .
There are two types of consonants:
When the vocal folds are wide apart and not vibrating , consonants are said to be voiceless . For example, the consonant sounds of / p /, / t / and / s /.When the vocal folds are close together and vibrating , consonants are said to be voiced . For example, the consonant sounds of / b /, / d / and / z /.You can feel when your vocal cords are producing 'voiced' consonants by putting your hand on your larynx. Try it. Can you feel the vibration? Now try a voiceless consonant. Feel the difference? Place of articulation.The place of articulation is where the airstream is obstructed to form consonant sounds. There are two types of articulators:
The active articulators are the parts that you can move, like your tongue or your lips.
The passive articulators are the immovable parts of your vocal tract that can be brought together, like the teeth or the palate.
There are 8 'places of articulation':
Bilabial sounds are produced when the upper and lower lips are fully in contact. The bilabial consonant sounds are / p, b, m /.Labiodentals are produced when the obstruction of the airstream is made by the top teeth touching the lower lip. The labiodental consonant sounds are / f / and / v /.Dental sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue is just behind the top teeth (on rare occasions it may protrude between the teeth, but not commonly). The dental consonant sounds are / θ / and / ð /.Alveolar sounds are produced by the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge . The alveolar consonant sounds are / t, d, l, r, n, s, z /.Alveopalatal sounds are produced with the blade of the tongue approaching the hard palate . The alveopalatal consonant sounds are / ʃ / and / ʒ /.Palatal sounds are made a bit further back from an alveopalatal. The consonant sound / j / is in this category.Velar sounds are produced with the back of the tongue against the soft palate . The velar consonant sounds are / k, g, ŋ /.Glottals are made in the vocal folds . The glottal consonants are / h / and / ʔ /.
Remember: practise all the time. Help yourself by putting your finger or your hand on the throat, close your eyes and focus on the movement of the tongue. In this way, you will understand more which places of articulation you are using. Use the same technique for the manner of articulation to understand how it works when you pronounce a word.
Manner of articulation
The manner of articulation refers to how the airstream is obstructed to produce consonant sounds. There are six different 'manners of articulation':Stops are produced by blocking the airstream completely and then releasing it in a burst. The stop consonant sounds are / p, b, t, k, g /.Fricative sounds are produced by a partial obstruction of the airstream. The airstream coming out is turbulent, and this turbulence causes friction. That's why they are called fricatives. The fricative consonant sounds are / f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, θ, ð, h /.Affricates start with the symbol of a stop sound and end with a fricative sound. In this case, the release of the air is done progressively, producing friction. The affricate consonant sounds are / tʃ, ts, dʒ, ds /.Nasals are sounds produced when the air is redirected up through the nasal cavity . The nasal consonant sounds are / m, n, ŋ /.Liquid sounds are made when the airstream passes through the mouth in a fluid manner. The liquid consonants are / l / and / r /.Approximants are sounds made without any kind of friction or contact . The approximant consonants are / w / and / j /. Place of articulation
The place of articulation is where the airstream is obstructed to form consonant sounds. There are two types of articulators:
The active articulators are the parts that you can move, like your tongue or your lips.

The passive articulators are the immovable parts of your vocal tract that can be brought together, like the teeth or the palate.

There are 8 'places of articulation':
Bilabial sounds are produced when the upper and lower lips are fully in contact. The bilabial consonant sounds are / p, b, m /.Labiodentals are produced when the obstruction of the airstream is made by the top teeth touching the lower lip. The labiodental consonant sounds are / f / and / v /.Dental sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue is just behind the top teeth (on rare occasions it may protrude between the teeth, but not commonly). The dental consonant sounds are / θ / and / ð /.Alveolar sounds are produced by the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge . The alveolar consonant sounds are / t, d, l, r, n, s, z /.Alveopalatal sounds are produced with the blade of the tongue approaching the hard palate . The alveopalatal consonant sounds are / ʃ / and / ʒ /.Palatal sounds are made a bit further back from an alveopalatal. The consonant sound / j / is in this category.Velar sounds are produced with the back of the tongue against the soft palate . The velar consonant sounds are / k, g, ŋ /.Glottals are made in the vocal folds . The glottal consonants are / h / and / ʔ /.
Remember: practise all the time. Help yourself by putting your finger or your hand on the throat, close your eyes and focus on the movement of the tongue. In this way, you will understand more which places of articulation you are using. Use the same technique for the manner of articulation to understand how it works when you pronounce a word.
Manner of articulation
The manner of articulation refers to how the airstream is obstructed to produce consonant sounds. There are six different 'manners of articulation':Stops are produced by blocking the airstream completely and then releasing it in a burst. The stop consonant sounds are / p, b, t, k, g /.Fricative sounds are produced by a partial obstruction of the airstream. The airstream coming out is turbulent, and this turbulence causes friction. That's why they are called fricatives. The fricative consonant sounds are / f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, θ, ð, h /.
Affricates start with the symbol of a stop sound and end with a fricative sound. In this case, the release of the air is done progressively, producing friction. The affricate consonant sounds are / tʃ, ts, dʒ, ds /.
Nasals are sounds produced when the air is redirected up through the nasal cavity . The nasal consonant sounds are / m, n, ŋ /.iquid sounds are made when the airstream passes through the mouth in a fluid manner. The liquid consonants are / l / and / r /.
Approximants are sounds made without any kind of friction or contact . The approximant consonants are / w / and / j /.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
In English, consonants can be distinguished by whether they are 'sounds' or 'letters' . Sometimes they overlap.
What is a Consonant?
A consonant sound is made by closing the vocal tract (such as tongue, lips, teeth, hard and soft palate), either completely or partially.List of consonants and examples Here are the 24 consonant sounds, with examples:
/ p / as in p en, attem p t, and to p .
/ b / as in b rain, a b stract, and ca b .
/ t / as in t ell, realis t ic, and walke d .
/ d / as in d ad, un d er, and be d .
/ tʃ / as in ch urch, kit ch en, and spee ch .
/ dʒ / as in J ordan, an g el, and chan g e.
/ k / as in k ite, te c hnical, and roc k .
/ g / as in g irl, fin g er, and gan g .
/ f / as in ph oto, co ff ee, and lau gh .
/ v / as in v an, con v ince and o f .
/ θ / as in th ink, a th lete and mon th .
/ ð / as in th is, bro th er and clo th e.
/ s / as in s it, ba s ic, and dan c e.
/ z / as in z ebra, cra z y / cou s in, and watche s .
/ ʃ / as in sh ip, pre ss ure / na tio n / o c ean, and wi sh .
/ ʒ / as in g enre, ca s ual / lei s ure / vi si o n, and bei ge .
/ m / as in m other, co mm on, and ho m e.
/ n / as in n eed, di nn er, and fu n .
/ ŋ / used for the -ing form or s ing .
/ h / as in h at, w h o and be h ave.
/ l / as in l ion, he l p, and travel l .
/ r / as in r ight, w r ong, and ca r (standard American English pronunciation) .
/ w / as in w ait / o ne, s w im and qu it.
/ j / as in y ellow, c u te, and f e w.
You may notice that:
Certain consonants can be combined. For example, ch is usually pronounced / tʃ /, which combines / t / and / ʃ /: chat = / tʃæt /.
And here's some trivia for you: in “Pacific Ocean” every c is pronounced differently: Pacific Ocean = [pəˈsɪfɪk ˈəʊʃən]. The reason this happens could be historical.
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Vowels and Consonants, freepik.com
What are consonants made of?
Consonants have three characteristics:
Voicing refers to the activity of the vocal cords . The organs related to voicing are:
The vocal cords .
The glottis .
The larynx .
There are two types of consonants:
When the vocal folds are wide apart and not vibrating , consonants are said to be voiceless . For example, the consonant sounds of / p /, / t / and / s /.When the vocal folds are close together and vibrating , consonants are said to be voiced . For example, the consonant sounds of / b /, / d / and / z /.You can feel when your vocal cords are producing 'voiced' consonants by putting your hand on your larynx. Try it. Can you feel the vibration? Now try a voiceless consonant. Feel the difference?
Sign up for free to unlock all images and more.Articulation of vowels and consonants, freepik.comPlace of articulationThe place of articulation is where the airstream is obstructed to form consonant sounds. There are two types of articulators:The active articulators are the parts that you can move, like your tongue or your lips.The passive articulators are the immovable parts of your vocal tract that can be brought together, like the teeth or the palate.There are 8 'places of articulation':Bilabial sounds are produced when the upper and lower lips are fully in contact. The bilabial consonant sounds are / p, b, m /.Labiodentals are produced when the obstruction of the airstream is made by the top teeth touching the lower lip. The labiodental consonant sounds are / f / and / v /.
Dental sounds are produced when the tip of the tongue is just behind the top teeth (on rare occasions it may protrude between the teeth, but not commonly). The dental consonant sounds are / θ / and / ð /.Alveolar sounds are produced by the tip of the tongue touching or approaching the alveolar ridge . The alveolar consonant sounds are / t, d, l, r, n, s, z /.Palatal sounds are made a bit further back from an alveopalatal. The consonant sound / j / is in this category.Velar sounds are produced with the back of the tongue against the soft palate . The velar consonant sounds are / k, g, ŋ /.
Glottals are made in the vocal folds . The glottal consonants are / h / and / ʔ /.
Remember: practise all the time. Help yourself by putting your finger or your hand on the throat, close your eyes and focus on the movement of the tongue. In this way, you will understand more which places of articulation you are using. Use the same technique for the manner of articulation to understand how it works when you pronounce a word.
Manner of articulation

The manner of articulation refers to how the airstream is obstructed to produce consonant sounds. There are six different 'manners of articulation':Stops are produced by blocking the airstream completely and then releasing it in a burst. The stop consonant sounds are / p, b, t, k, g /.Fricative sounds are produced by a partial obstruction of the airstream. The airstream coming out is turbulent, and this turbulence causes friction. That's why they are called fricatives. The fricative consonant sounds are / f, v, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, θ, ð, h /.Affricates start with the symbol of a stop sound and end with a fricative sound. In this case, the release of the air is done progressively, producing friction. The affricate consonant sounds are / tʃ, ts, dʒ, ds /.Nasals are sounds produced when the air is redirected up through the nasal cavity . The nasal consonant sounds are / m, n, ŋ /.Liquid sounds are made when the airstream passes through the mouth in a fluid manner. The liquid consonants are / l / and / r /.Approximants are sounds made without any kind of friction or contact . The approximant consonants are / w / and / j /.

Vowels are speech sounds made when the mouth is open and the air is expelled freely through the vocal tract without being blocked in the mouth or larynx. Let's summarize:
A consonant sound is produced with a complete or partial closure of the vocal tract.
A vowel is produced with a complete opening of the vocal tract.
Consonants are described according to voicing, place of articulation, and manner of articulation. Vowels are described according to height, frontness or backness, and roundness.
There are 24 consonant sounds and 14 vowel sounds in English.
Examples of vowels and consonants
Now play a game to understand how to pronounce a vowel and how to pronounce a consonant:Make the vowel sound / u /. While you are making the sound, move your lips and your jaw. Even though there is a movement of the articulators, you can sustain the same sound. Do the same exercise with some other vowel sounds.
Now make the consonant sound / b / without moving your mouth, lips, or tongue. It is impossible to do because to pronounce a consonant you have to move the articulators.