Answers for lexicology 1

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ANSWERS FOR LEXICOLOGY 1

PART A. THEORY 1

Q.1. What are lexicology, word and vocabulary? 1

Q.2. State the origin of English words? 1

Q.3. What is the assimilation (sự đồng hóa) of borrowings? 2

Q.4. Classify borrowed words according to the degree of assimilation? 2

Q.5. What is morpheme? What are the properties of morphemes. Classify morphemes? 2

Q.7. What are compounds? Their specific features?Classify English compounds? 5

Q.8. What is clipping? State the kinds of clipping? 6

Q.10. What is meaning? What is semantic? 7

Q.11. Lexical meaning of the word? 7

Q.12. What is metaphor? Types of metaphor? 7

Q.13. What is metonymy? Types of metonymy (Hoán dụ)? 7

Q.14. What is homonym( từ đồng âm khác nghĩa)? Classify homonym? State the origin of homonym? 8

Q.15. What is synonym(từ đồng nghĩa)? What are the criteria of synonym? State the types of synonym? 9

Q.16. What are the types of connotation? 10

Q.17. What is euphemism (uyển ngữ)? State the reasons for euphemism? 10

Q.18. What is antonym(từ trái nghĩa)? What are the types of antonym? 10

Q.19. What are the main characteristics of Phraseological units (Pus)? How can PUs can be distinguished from Free word groups (FWGs)? 11

Q.20. Principles of classification of PUs? 11

Q.21. Structural classification of PUs? 12

PART B. EXERCISES 13

CHAPTER I. FUNDAMENTALS 13

CHAPTER II. THE ETYMOLOGY OF ENGLISH WORDS 13

CHAPTER III. MORPHEME STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH WORDS 14

CHAPTER IV. WORD – BUILDING 15

CHAPTER V. SEMANTICS – MEANING 20

CHAPTER VI. HOMONYMS 20

CHAPTER VII. SYNONYMS AND ANTONYMS 21

CHAPTER VIII. SET EXPRESSION - PHRASEOLOGY 22

ANSWERS FOR LEXICOLOGY

PART A. THEORY

Q.1. What are lexicology, word and vocabulary?

- Lexicology is a branch of linguistics dealing with the vocabulary of language and the properties of words as the main units of language.

- Word is a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sound, possessing a meaning, susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and semantic unity.

- Vocabulary is the term used to denote the system formed by the sum total of all the words that the language possesses.

Q.2. State the origin of English words?

2.1. Native words:

- Definition: Native words are words belonging to original English stock

- The native element in English comprises a large number of high frequency words like the articles, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, auxiliaries, and, also, words denoting everyday objects and ideas.

- Native words are sub-divided into 3 groups:

+ Indo-European element: are meant words of roots common to all or most languages of the Indo-European group. English words of this group denote elementary notions without which no human communication would be possible.

Eg. Father, mother, brother, son, daughter, foot, heart, cow, day, night, sun, moon, star, sheep, wolf, man, two, three, tree, etc.

+ Germanic element: are words of roots common to all or most Germanic languages.

Eg. Head, arm, bear, oak, rain, winter, spring, sea, land, house, boat, green, blue, earth, little, strong, long, etc.

+ English proper: are words having no cognates in other languages. English proper element can be approximately dated.

Eg. Bird, boy, girl, lady, woman, lord, apple, dog, bread, etc.

2.1. Borrowed words (borrowing / loan words):

- Definition: Borrowed words are those taken from other languages and modified in phonetic shape, graphic, morphological…according to standards of the English language.

- Borrowed words can be taken from various languages such as: Latin, French, Russian, Greek, Spanish, etc.

Eg. + Latin: butter, plum, beef…

+ Spanish: tomato, potato…

+ French: desire, adore, baron, count…

- The reasons for borrowings from a language to another may be:

+ It serves to fill a gap in vocabulary

+ It represents the same notion in some new aspect, supply a new shade of meaning or a different emotional coloring.

2.3. International words:

- International words are words of identical origin that occurs in several languages as a result of simultaneous and successive borrowing from one ultimate source: Football, email, internet.

Q.3. What is the assimilation (sự đồng hóa) of borrowings?

Def: The term assimilation of loan words is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system.

Q.4. Classify borrowed words according to the degree of assimilation?

- Def: The term assimilation of loan words is used to denote a partial or total conformation to the phonetical, graphical and morphological standards of the receiving language and its semantic system.

- According to degree of assimilation, borrowed words can be classified into: completely assimilated words, partially assimilated words and unassimilated words.

- Completely assimilated words are found in all the layers of older borrowings.

Eg. + Latin: cheese, street, wall, wine…

+ Scandinavian: husband, fellow, gate, root, wing…

+ French: table, chair, face…

- Partially assimilated words are sub-divided into 4 subgroups:

+ Loan words not assimilated semantically: denote the objects, notion of country they’re from

Eg. Kimono (Japanese), rickshaw (Chinese)

+ Loan words not assimilated grammatically:

Eg. Formula – formulae; index – indice; phenomenon – phenomena (plural form is kept constant).

+ Loan words not completely assimilated phonetically:

Eg. ma’chine, car’toon, po’lice (stress / accent is kept on original syllabe)

+ Loan words not completely assimilated graphically:

Eg. Café, cliché (lời nói sáo rỗng) (keep a diacritical mark)

- Unassimilated words / barbarisms: are words from other languages used by English people in conversation or writing, but not assimilated in any way, and for which there are corresponding English equivalents. (additional)

Eg. ciao (Italian) – ‘good bye’

Q.4* What is etymological doublets/tripplets.

- Etymological doublets are two words originating from the same etymological source, but differing in phonemic shape and in meaning. A doublet may also consist of a shorten word and the one from which it was derived

Eg: history-story, shirt (E)-skirt (Sc)

- Etymological tripplets are groups of three words of common root. They occur more rarely.

Eg: hospital(Lat.)- hostel (Norm.Fr)- hotel ( Par. Fr)

Q.5. What is morpheme? What are the properties of morphemes. Classify morphemes?

- Definition: Morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a given language. It can not be devided without altering or destroying its meaning.

Eg: understand, butcher, grocer,stand, look, etc.

- Properties of morpheme;

+ Morpheme is the smallest unit associated with a meaning

+ Morpheme is recyclable unit, eg: perceive, receive, etc.

+ Morpheme can not be confused with syllable, eg: understand: 1 morpheme but 3 syllable,

+ Morpheme may take phonetically different shape: eg: record (N, V)

- Classification:

5.1. According to its function:

- Grammatical morphemes: are morphemes which show grammatical meanings

Eg. books “-s” is grammatical morpheme

- Lexical morphemes: are morphemes which show principle meanings

Eg. books “book” is lexical morpheme

5.2. According to its distribution:

- Free morphemes: can stand alone as independent words

- Bound morpheme: can’t stand alone as independent words, can only be added to other words to form new forms of word or new words.

Eg. booked “book” – free morpheme; “-ed” – bound morpheme

5.3. According to word-buiding:

- Affixes can’t stand alone as independent words. Affixes are bound morphemes that occur before or after a root and somewhat modify the basic meaning of the root.

• 
  According to position, affixes can be subdivided in to prefixes, suffixes, infixes
  

+ prefix: unhappy, inexpensive, etc.

+ suffix: careful,happiness, etc.

+ infix: statesment, salesman, etc.

• 
  According to function affixes are sub-divided into inflectional and derivational morphemes.
  

+ Inflectional morpheme is used to add to the root to form new form.

Eg. translated, flowers, etc.

+ Derivational morpheme is used to add to the root to form new word.

Eg. Teacher, commitment, etc.

• 
  According to etymology, affixes are sub-divided into native affixes and borrowed affixes
  

+ Native affixes are those that existed in English in the old English period or were formed from old English words. Eg: -dom, -hood, -ful, etc.

+ Borrowed affixes are affixes that are borrowed from other languages. Many of the borrowed affixes are international and occur not only in English but in several other European languages as well. Eg: -ate ( Fr), -ism (Greek), -able (Lat.)

• 
  According to productivity, affixes can be classified into productive and non-productive affixes.
  

+ Productive affixes are the ones which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words. Eg: -er,-ed,-ly (forming adverbs), -ize, un-

+ Nonproductive affixes are the ones which have restriction in combining with other words to form new words. Eg: -hood, en-, -some,-ly (forming adjective)

• 
  According to part of speech, affixes are subdivided as follows:
  

+ Prefixes: - prefixes that gives negative meaning: Eg: un-, in-, dis-, etc.

- prefixes that form Verbs. Eg: en-, em-

- prefixes that change the part of speech of the word without changing the meaning ???

+ Suffixes: - Noun-forming suffixes

* from verb. Eg: -ing, -ion

* Agent noun from verb: -er, -or, -ee, etc.

* from Adj. Eg: -ness,

- Verb-forming suffixes:

* from Adj: -en, -ize

* from N: -ify, -ate.

- Adjective-forming suffixes:

* from N: -al, -ly, -ful

* from nationality: -ian, -ese,

* from V: -ent, -ive, -able

- Adverb forming suffixes: -ly, -ward, -wise

- Numeral forming suffixes: -fold, -teen, -th, -ty

- Root (base): is the lexical morpheme that constitutes the core of word. Base is the morpheme which carries the principle meaning in the word and to which a suffix or prefix can be added.

Eg. happy (base) – happiness

Root can be free base morpheme or bound base morpheme. Free base can stand by itself while bound base must be preceded by prefix or followed by suffix.
5*) What are the differences between free morphemes and bound morphemes?

Free morphemes are morphemes which can stay alone as independent words. Eg: stand, like, etc.

Bound morphemes are morphemes which can not stay alone as independent words. They only modify the meaning of the words. Un-, -ness, etc.

Free morphemes and bound morphemes are different in terms of distribution. Free morphemes can stand alone as independent words while bound morphemes can not.

5**) How to cut the constituents of a word ( IC – Immediate Constituent division):

Each hierarchy is the layer or structure by which a word has been composed, we can make successive division into parts, each of which called IC and this division is called IC division. IC division has to follow these rules:

• 
  If a word has an inflectional suffix, the first cut is between inflectional suffix and the word,
  
• 
  One of the IC should be a free form
  
• 
  The meaning of the IC should be related to the total meaning.
  

Eg: un//happy/ness

Q.6. What’s allomorph? State the kind of allomorph? Classify the morphological conditioned allomorph?

• 
  Definition:
  

Allomorphs are various phonemic shapes that represent the same morpheme. An allomorph is a structure which is similar semantically but phonologically or morphologically different.

Eg. /z/, /s/, /iz/ - are allomorph of {s}

6.2. Kinds of allomorph:

- Phonologically conditioned allomorph (PCA): a morpheme is phonologically conditioned when its distribution depends on the phonological nature of the preceding phoneme.

Eg: {-ed}-/id/; /t/;/d/

- Morphologically conditioned allomorph (MCA): a morpheme is morphologically conditioned when it is determined by a specific morpheme. It occurs in the case of irregular verbs and irregular nouns

+ Classify MCA:

- Zero allomorph: no change in writing

Eg. sheep – sheep

{-s}={-}

- Additive allomorph: {-s} = {-en}

Eg. child – children

- Replacive allomorph:

+ Vowel: v  v Eg. man – men /æ/  /e/

Eg. tooth – teeth /u:/  /i:/

+ Consonant --> consonant Eg: advice- advise /s/ ->/z/

Q.7. What are processes of making new words?

There are 4 processes of making new words:

• 
  Derivation/ Affixation: is the formation of making new word by adding affixes to the root morpheme.
  

D= root+ affixes Eg: work-worker, happy- happiness, luck-unlucky

• 
  Composition: is the combination/formation of at least two free bases
  

C= FB+FB Eg: icecream, railway, workforce,etc.

• 
  Shortening may be represented as significant substraction, in which part of the original word is taken away. Shortening includes clipping, blending and abbreviation:
  

Eg: + Clipping: Ad, Advert : Advertisement, fend : defend, flu: influenza, etc.

+ Blending: Telecast : television postcast, smog : smoke and frog, etc.

+ Abbreviation: WHO, NATO,

• 
  Conversion: is a process by which word extends its grammatical function
  

Eg: Lunch- to lunch, elbow- to elbow, etc.

Q.7. What are compounds? Their specific features?Classify English compounds?

- Compound words are words containing of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms. In a compound word, the ICs obtain integrity and structural cohesion that make them function in sentence as a separate lexical unit.

- Features:

+ Both ICs of an English compound are free forms. Eg: afternoon, birthday,

+ The regular pattern for the English language is a two-stem Eg: mother-in-law, wastepaper-basket, etc.

+ One more specific feature of English compounding is the important role the attributive syntactic function can play in providing a phrase with structural cohesion and turning it into a compound. Eg: the records are out of date  out-of-date records

- Classification:

According to the structural aspect of ICs: Compounds can be subdivided in to neutral, morphological and syntactic compounds.

- Neutral compounds: are compounds produced by the process of compounding without any linking element, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems.

+ Simple neutral compounds: consist of simple affixless stems.

Eg. blackbird, ladybird, windshield, etc.

+ Derivational compounds: are compounds which have affixes in their structure. One of the constituents is derivational stem.

Eg. lady-killer, air-conditioner, chainsmoker, etc.

+ Contracted compounds: are compounds which have a shortened( contracted) stem in their structure.

Eg. V-day, H-bomb, U-turn, etc.

- Morphorlogical compounds: are compounds in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant.

Eg. handicraft, spokesman, handiwork, etc.

- Syntactic compounds: are words formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: article, preposition, adverb. Eg mother-in-law, lady-in-waiting, good-for-nothing, lily-of-the-valley, etc.

According to semantic aspect of compound words: compounds can be subdivided into idiomatic and non-idiomatic compounds

- Non-idiomatic compounds: are the compounds whose meanings can really be described as the sum of their constituent meanings.

Eg. bedroom, earthquake, etc.

- Idiomatic compounds: are the compounds whose meanings do not correspond to the separate meanings of their constituent parts. Idiomatic compounds are subdivided into two types: partial semantic change and total semantic change

+ Partial semantic change: one of the components has change its meaning: Eg. blackboard,blackberry, lazy-bone,etc.

+ Total semantic change: all the components have changed their meanings. In the compounds, the process of deducing the meaning of the whole from those of the constituents is impossible. Eg: tallboy, butterfly, etc.

According to parts of speech: compounds can be subdivided into compound Ns, compound Adjs and compound Vs

• 
  Compound Ns: +) N+N: eg: waste paper, milkman, etc
  

+) Ving+ N: dining room, working class

+) N/V + Prep: day-off, sale-off, knock-out, drop-out, etc.

+) V+N: dare-devil ( kẻ liều lĩnh), pick-pocket, etc.

+) Adj+N: Tallboy, blackboard, lazy-bird

- Compound Adjs: +) N+ P₂: heart-broken, heart-shaped, pig-headed

+) N+Adj: world-wide, homesick, love-sick, etc.

+) Adj+Adj: light-blue, red-hot, etc.

+) Adj+N_ed: absent-minded, bad-tempered

+) Adj/N+ Ving: easy-going, hard-working, good-looking, summer flowering, freedom loving, etc.

• 
  Compound Vs: proof-read
  

Q.7*) What is blending? State the kinds of blending?

- Def: Blending is the fusion of words into one usually the first part of a word with the last part of another. Eg: chunnel, smoke, etc.

- Kinds of blending:

+ Additive blending: is transformable into a phrase consisting of the respective complete stems combined by the conjunction ‘and’. Eg: smog (smoke and fog), camcorder (camera and recorder)

+ Restrictive blending is transformable into an attributive phrase where the first element serves as modifier of the second. Eg: Telecast = Television broadcast, motel = motorists’ hotel

Q.8. What is clipping? State the kinds of clipping?

- Def: Clipping is the cutting-off of the beginning or the final or the middle part of the word or both, leaving a part to stand for the word.

- Kinds of clipping: according to the position of the cut part

+ Initial clipping: retains the final part of the word (the initial part is cut).

Eg. telephone  phone; violoncello  cello, etc.

+ Final clipping: retains the initial part of the word (the final part is cut).

Eg. advertisement  ad; examination  exam; laboratory  lab, etc.

+ Inito-final clipping: retains the medial part of the word (the initial and final parts are cut).

Eg. influenza  flu; refridgerator  fridge…

+ Medial clipping: retains the initial and final parts of the word (the medial part is cut).

Eg. mathematics  maths; spectacles  specs, etc.

Q.9. What is conversion? State the semantic relationship in conversion?

- Conversion is the process by which a word is extended its grammatical function.

Eg. book (n) – to book (v)

- Semantic relationship:

+ N – name of tool or implement; V – denotes action performed by it.

Eg. hammer – to hammer, comb – to comb, brush – to brush, etc.

+ N – name of animal; V – denotes action or aspect of behaviour considered typical of it.

Eg. dog – to dog, ape – to ape, etc. (except: fish – to fish _try to catch fish).

+ N – name of part of human body; V – denotes action performed by it.

Eg. head – to head, eye – to eye, leg – to leg, etc.

+ N – name of a profession of occupation; V – denotes an activity typical of it.

Eg. cook – to cook, nurse – to nurse, etc.

+ N – name of place; V – the process of occupying it or put sb/sth into it.

Eg. room – to room, table – to table, etc.

+ N – name of container; V – the act of putting sth within the container.

Eg. can – to can, bottle – to bottle, etc.

+ N – name of meal; V – the process of taking it.

Eg. lunch – to lunch, etc.

Q.9*) What is abbreviation, state the kinds of occupation?

- Def: Abbreviation is a process by which a word is formed from the inital letter or beginning segment of a series of words. Eg: NATO, ASEAN, WHO, etc.

- Kinds:

+ the abbreviated written form can be read as an ordinary English word: Eg: UNESCO, ASEAN, etc.

+ the abbreviated written form can be read as separate letters. Eg: BBC, WTO, etc.

+ the abbreviated written form can be read in both ways: UFO, UNO, etc.

Q.10. What is meaning? What is semantic?

- Meaning can be more or less described as a component of the word through which a concept is communicated.

- Semantics is the branch of linguistic which specializes in the study of meanings