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Answer the following questions:
1. What is word formation as a language subsystem?
2. What ways of forming words do we observe in Modern English?
3. What is the importance of the synchronic and diachronic approaches to the study of word formation?
4. What is productivity of WF means in English?
5. What is frequency of WF means?
LECTURE 10. AFFIXATION AS THE MOST PRODUCTIVE TYPE OF WORD FORMATION
Plan of the lecture:
1. Affixal derivation as a type of WF
2. Criteria for classification of affixes
3. Prefixation: classification of prefixes and their productivity
4. Suffixation: classification of suffixes and their productivity
5. Semantic features of affixes: polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, etc.
6. Semi-affixes and their origin
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases. Derived words formed by affixation may be the result of one or several applications of word-formation rule and thus the stems of words making up a word-cluster enter into derivational relations of different degrees. The zero degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is homonymous with a word-form and often with a root-morpheme, e.g. atom, haste, devote, anxious, horror, etc. Derived words whose bases are built on simple stems and thus are formed by the application of one derivational affix are described as having the first degree of derivation, e.g. atomic, hasty, devotion, etc. Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining possess the second degree of derivation, etc., e.g. atomical, hastily, devotional, etc.
In conformity with the division of derivational affixes into suffixes and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. Distinction is naturally made between prefixal and suffixal derivatives according to the last stage of derivation, which determines the nature of the ICs of the pattern that signals the relationship of the derived word with its motivating source unit, cf. unjust (un-+just), justify, (just++ -ify), arrangement (arrange + -ment), non-smoker (non- + smoker).
Words like reappearance, unreasonable, denationalise, are often qualified as prefixal-suffixal derivatives. The reader should clearly realise that this qualification is relevant only in terms of the constituent morphemes such words are made up of, i.e. from the angle of morphemic analysis.
From the point of view of derivational analysis such words are mostly either suffixal or prefixal derivatives, e.g. sub-atomic = sub- + (atom + + - ic), unreasonable = un- + (reason + -able), denationalise = de- + + (national + -ize), discouragement = (dis- + courage) + -ment.
A careful study of a great many suffixal and prefixal derivatives has revealed an essential difference between them. In Modern English suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation. The distinction also rests on the role different types of meaning play in the semantic structure of the suffix and the prefix.1 The part-of-speech meaning has a much greater significance in suffixes as compared to prefixes which possess it in a lesser degree. Due to it a prefix may be confined to one part of speech as, e.g., enslave, encage, unbutton or may function in more than one part of
speech as, e.g., over- in overkind a, to overfeed v, overestimation n; unlike prefixes, suffixes as a rule function in any o n e part of speech often forming a derived stem of a different part of speech as compared with that of the base, e.g. careless a – cf. care n; suitable a – cf. suit v, etc.
Furthermore, it is necessary to point out that a suffix closely knit together with a base forms a fusion retaining less of its independence than a prefix which is as a general rule more independent semantically, cf. reading – ‘the act of one who reads’; ‘ability to read’; and to re-read – ‘to read again.'
There are different classifications of affixes in linguistic literature. Affixes may be divided into dead and living. Dead affixes are those which are no longer felt in Modern English as component parts of words. They can ba singled out only by an etymological analysis. For example, admit (from L ad -(-mit-tere); deed, seed (-d), flight, bright (-t).
Living affixes are easily singled out from a word. For example, freedom, childhood, marriage. Living affixes are traditionally in their turn divided into productive and non-productive. The term “productivity” is a subject of discussion among the linguists. However, it follows that productivity of word -building ways, individual derivational patterns and derivational affixes is understood as their ability of making new words which all, we speak English, find no difficulty in understanding, in particular their ability to create what are called occasional words. (Ginzburg R. S. and others)
Productive affixes are those which are characterized by their ability to make new words. For example, -er (baker, lander) -ist (leftist) -ism, -ish (baldish) -ing, -ness, -ation, -ee. -ry, -or -ance, ic are productive suffixes re-, un-non-, anti- etc are also productive prefixes.
Non-productive affixes are those which are not used to form new words in Modern English. For example, -ard, -cy, -ive, -en, -dom, -ship, -en, -ify, etc. are non- productive suffixes; in (il) ir- (im-), are non-productive prefixes. These affixes may occur in a great number of words but if they are not used to form new words in Modem English they are not productive.
But recent investigations prove that there are no productive and non-productive affixes because each affix plays a certain role in wordformation. There are only affixes with different degrees of productivity, besides that productivity of affixes should not be mixed up with their frequency of occurence in speech.
Frequency of affixes is characterised by the occurence of an affix in a great number of words. But productivity is the ability of a given suffix or prefix to make new words. An affix may be frequent but not productive, for example, the suffix
-ive is very frequent but non-productive.
The native noun-forming suffixes ~dom and -ship ceased to be productive centuries ago. Yet, Professor I. V. Arnold in The English Word gives some examples of comparatively new formations with the suffix -dom: boredom, serfdom, slavedom. The same is true about -ship (e. g. salesmanship). The adjective-forming -ish, which leaves no doubt as to its productivity nowadays, has comparatively recently regained it, after having been non-productive for many centuries.
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