Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

 working memory 
and defi ned as a set of temporary memory stores that 
actively manipulate and rehearse information (Bayliss et al., 2005a, 2005b; Unsworth 
& Engle, 2005).
Working memory is thought to contain a central executive processor that is 
involved in reasoning and decision making. The central executive coordinates three 
distinct storage-and-rehearsal systems: the visual store , the verbal store , and the epi-
sodic buffer . The visual store specializes in visual and spatial information, whereas 
the verbal store holds and manipulates material relating to speech, words, and 
numbers. The episodic buffer contains information that represents episodes or 
rehearsal
The repetition of information 
that has entered short-term memory.
working memory
A set of active, 
temporary memory stores that actively 
manipulate and rehearse information.
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214 Chapter 
7 
Memory
events (Baddeley, 2001; Bröder & Schiffer, 2006; Rudner & Rönnberg, 2008; see 
Figure 4). 
Working memory permits us to keep information in an active state briefl y so that 
we can do something with the information. For instance, we use working memory 
when we’re doing a multistep arithmetic problem in our heads, storing the result of 
one calculation while getting ready to move to the next stage. (I make use of my 
working memory when I fi gure a 20% tip in a restaurant by fi rst calculating 10% of 
the total bill and then doubling it.) 
Although working memory aids in the recall of information, it uses a signifi cant 
amount of cognitive resources during its operation. In turn, this can make us less 
aware of our surroundings—something that has implications for the debate about 
the use of cell telephones in automobiles. If a phone conversation requires thinking, 
it will burden working memory and leave drivers less aware of their surroundings, 
an obviously dangerous state of affairs (Sifrit, 2006; Strayer & Drews, 2007). 
Furthermore, stress can reduce the effectiveness of working memory by reducing 
its capacity. In fact, one study found that students with the highest working memory 
capacity and greatest math ability were the ones who were most vulnerable to pres-
sure to perform well. Those who should have performed best, then, were the ones 
most apt to choke on the test because their working memory capacities were reduced 
by the stress (Beilock & Carr, 2005; Carey, 2004).
Long-Term Memory
Material that makes its way from short-term memory to long-term memory enters a 
storehouse of almost unlimited capacity. Like a new fi le we save on a hard drive, the 
information in long-term memory is fi led and coded so that we can retrieve it when 
we need it. 
Evidence of the existence of long-term memory, as distinct from short-term mem-
ory, comes from a number of sources. For example, people with certain kinds of brain 
damage have no lasting recall of new information received after the damage occurred,