Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt 
stage
The period during which, 
according to Erikson, toddlers (ages 
1½ to 3 years) develop independence 
and autonomy if exploration and 
freedom are encouraged or shame and 
self-doubt if they are restricted and 
overprotected.
initiative-versus-guilt stage
Accord-
ing to Erikson, the period during 
which children ages 3 to 6 years 
experience confl ict between indepen-
dence of action and the sometimes 
negative results of that action.
industry-versus-inferiority stage
According to Erikson, the last stage of 
childhood, during which children age 6 
to 12 years may develop positive social 
interactions with others or may feel 
inadequate and become less sociable.
Study Alert
Four of Erikson’s stages of 
psychosocial development 
occur during childhood: 
trust-versus-mistrust, 
autonomy-versus-shame-
and-doubt, initiative-versus-guilt, 
and industry-versus inferiority.
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“Please, Jason. Don’t you want to grow up 
to be an autonomous person?”
cognitive development 
The process 
by which a child’s understanding of 
the world changes as a function of 
age and experience.
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Module 37 
Infancy and Childhood 
405
and social development discussed earlier (such as those of Erikson), theories of 
cognitive development seek to explain the quantitative and qualitative intellectual 
advances that occur during development.