Understanding Psychology (10th Ed)

levels-of-processing theory
The 
theory of memory that emphasizes the 
degree to which new material is 
mentally analyzed.
FIGURE 2 
Naming the characters in 
Figure 1 (a recall task) is more diffi
cult 
than solving the recognition problem 
posed in this list. 
Study Alert
Remember the distinction 
between recall (in which 
specifi c information 
must be retrieved) and 
recognition (in which 
information is presented and must 
be identifi ed or distinguished from 
other material).
Answer this recognition question:
Which of the following are the names of the seven dwarfs in the Disney movie 
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs?
Goofy
Bashful
Sleepy
Meanie
Smarty
Doc
Scaredy
Happy
Dopey
Angry
Grumpy
Sneezy
Wheezy
Crazy
(T
he corr
ect answ
ers are Bashful
, Doc, Dopey
, Grumpy, Happ
y, Sleep
y, and Sneez
y.)
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224 Chapter 
7 
Memory
memorization of a list of key terms for a test is unlikely to produce long-term recol-
lection of information because processing occurs at a shallow level. In contrast, think-
ing about the meaning of the terms and refl ecting on how they relate to information 
that one currently knows results in far more effective long-term retention (Conway, 
2002; Wenzel, Zetocha, & Ferraro, 2007).
Explicit and Implicit Memory
If you’ve ever had surgery, you probably hoped that the surgeons were focused 
completely on the surgery and gave you their undivided attention while slicing into 
your body. The reality in most operating rooms is quite different, though. Surgeons 
may be chatting with nurses about a new restaurant as soon as they sew you up. 
If you are like most patients, you are left with no recollection of the conversation 
that occurred while you were under anesthesia. However, it is very possible that 
although you had no conscious memories of the discussions on the merits of the 
restaurant, on some level you probably did recall at least some information. In fact, 
careful studies have found that people who are anesthetized during surgery can 
sometimes recall snippets of conversations they heard during surgery—even though 
they have no conscious recollection of the information (Kihlstrom et al., 1990; Sebel, 
Bonke, & Winogard, 1993). 
The discovery that people have memories about which they are unaware has 
been an important one. It has led to speculation that two forms of memory, explicit 
and implicit, may exist side by side.  Explicit memory  refers to intentional or con-
scious recollection of information. When we try to remember a name or date we have 
encountered or learned about previously, we are searching our explicit memory.
In contrast,  implicit memory  refers to memories of which people are not con-
sciously aware but that can affect subsequent performance and behavior. Skills that 
operate automatically and without thinking, such as jumping out of the path of an 
automobile coming toward us as we walk down the side of a road, are stored in 
implicit memory. Similarly, a feeling of vague dislike for an acquaintance, without 
knowing why we have that feeling, may be a refl ection of implicit memories. Perhaps 
the person reminds us of someone else in our past that we didn’t like, even though 
we are not aware of the memory of that other individual (Tulving, 2000; Uttl, Graf, 
& Consentino, 2003; Coates, Butler, & Berry, 2006; Voss & Paller, 2008).
Implicit memory is closely related to the prejudice and discrimination people 
exhibit toward members of minority groups. As we fi rst discussed in the module on 
conducting psychological research, even though people may say and even believe they 
harbor no prejudice, assessment of their implicit memories may reveal that they have 
negative associations about members of minority groups. Such associations can infl u-
ence people’s behavior without their being aware of their underlying beliefs (Green-
wald, Nosek, & Banaji, 2003; Greenwald, Nosek, & Sriram, 2006; Hofmann et al., 2008). 
One way that memory specialists study implicit memory is through experiments 
that use priming.  Priming  is a phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept 
(called a prime ) later makes it easier to recall related information. Priming effects occur 
even when people have no conscious memory of the original word or concept (Schacter 
& Badgaiyan, 2001; Toth & Daniels, 2002; Schacter, Dobbins, & Schnyer, 2004).
The typical experiment designed to illustrate priming helps clarify the phenom-
enon. In priming experiments, participants are rapidly exposed to a stimulus such 
as a word, an object, or perhaps a drawing of a face. The second phase of the exper-
iment is done after an interval ranging from several seconds to several months. At 
that point, participants are exposed to incomplete perceptual information that is 
related to the fi rst stimulus, and they are asked whether they recognize it. For exam-
ple, the new material may consist of the fi rst letter of a word that had been presented 
earlier or a part of a face that had been shown earlier. If participants are able to 
identify the stimulus more readily than they identify stimuli that have not been