and sequencing of content, and presentation with the aims and activities of
classroom teaching. As early as in 1936, Palmer, West, and their associates
selected and graded a vocabulary list, which was later revised by West and
published in 1953 with the title,
A General Service List of English Words
. The
list consisted of a core vocabulary of about 2,000 words selected on the basis
of such criteria as frequency, usefulness, and productivity and graded for
complexity. Likewise, Palmer and Hornby attempted to classify major gram-
matical structures into sentence patterns and also sought to introduce them
in situational dialogues. Hornby’s book,
A Guide to Patterns and Usage of Eng-
lish,
published in 1954 became a standard reference book of basic English
sentence patterns for textbook writers and classroom teachers.
As the British applied linguists were engaged in developing the struc-
tural–situational method, their American counterparts were called upon by
their government already drawn into World War II to devise effective, short-
term, intensive courses to teach conversational skills in German, French,
Italian, Chinese, Japanese, and other languages to army personnel who
could work as interpreters, code-room assistants, and translators. In re-
sponse, American applied linguists established what was called Army Spe-
cialized Training Program (ASTP), which moved away from the prevailing
reading/writing-oriented instruction to one that emphasized listening and
speaking. After the war and by the mid-1950s, the program evolved into a
full-fledged audiolingual method of teaching, and quickly became the pre-
dominant American approach to teaching English as second language.
A series of foundational texts published in the 1960s by American schol-
ars provided the much needed pedagogic resources for language-centered
methods. In an influential book titled
Language and Language Learning: The-
ory and Practice,
Brooks (1960) offered a comprehensive treatment of the
audiolingual method. This was followed by Fries and Fries (1961), whose
Foundations of English Teaching
presented a corpus of structural and lexical
items selected and graded into three proficiency levels—beginning, inter-
mediate, and advanced. The corpus also included suggestions for designing
contextual dialogues in which the structural and lexical items could be in-
corporated. Yet another seminal book,
Language Teaching: A Scientific Ap-
proach,
by Lado (1964) provided further impetus for the spread of the
audiolingual method. Appearing in the same year was a widely acclaimed
critical commentary on the audiolingual method titled
The Psychologist and
the Foreign Language Teacher,
by Rivers (1964).
Although the British structural–situational method focused on the situa-
tional context and the functional content of language more than the Amer-
ican audiolingual method did, similarities between them are quite striking.
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