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primary nomination
is scarcely traceable, it
includes sound imitation (cluck, moo, blurt, mumble, flap, flip,
flop) and sound symbolism (glimmer, shimmer, scatter, glare,
gloat, fidget).
Nowadays the domain of primary nomination is speech (F. de
Saussure’s ‘parole’) is poetry, especially formalistic, and similar
texts. One of the famous examples of primary naming is
‘Jabberwocky’ from Lewis Carroll’s ‘Through the Looking-
Glass’: ‘‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves / Did gyre and gimble
in the wabe; / All mimsy were the borogoves, / And the mome
raths outgrabe’. In Shchepkina-Kupernik’s translation —
‘Верлиока’: ‘Било супно. Кругтелся, винтясь по земле, /
Склипких козей царапистый рой. / Тихо мисиков стайка
грустела в мгие / Зеленавки хрющали порой’ [
Carroll
, 1966].
In this connection we may also well cite the famous sentence
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первичная номинация, вторичная номинация
22
узуальная номинация, окказиональная номинация
23
номинации с переносом наименований и без него
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создание нового слова
coined by L. V. Shcherba: ‘Глокая куздра штеко будланула
бокра и кудрячит бокренка’.
Primary nomination is occasionally employed for stylistic
purposes, for example J. Joyce embedded his works with plentiful
coinages, viz.
goldskinned, snotgreen, basiliskeyed, ghostcandled,
etc. (Ulysses).
Secondary nomination is the main type of nomination, both
in language as an ideal system of signs and in speech as its
actualization.
In langue secondary nomination implies the capacity of an
existing word to serve as a name for certain notions, and also the
change of the initial meaning of a word resulting in polysemy.
This change is due to
transfer of denomination from a traditional
object to another object
. The main types of semantic changes are
metaphor — transfer by similarity and metonymy — transfer by
contiguity. e.g. cat — 1) a small domestic animal, 2) a mean
unpleasant woman (metaphor); pin-point — 1) a point of a pin; 2)
(military) to show the exact position of (conversion, metaphor).
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In parole secondary nomination implies the capacity of a
speaker to place an object (a concept or a characteristic for that
matter) in a suitable class of objects by naming it. Every real
object has an infinite number of characteristic features, some of
which are objectively important, others are secondary,
inconspicuous, unimportant for most people, but very essential
for the speaker. Thus, any object of speech can have innumerable
denominations. The feature chosen by the speaker to name
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Secondary nomination may be also due to semantic processes:
generalization / specialization of meaning, i. e. broadening or narrowing of the class
of objects (denotata) named by a word (
bird
from O. E. bridd — ‘a young of a bird’;
meat
from O. E. mete — ‘food’); elevation / degradation of meaning, i.e. change
of connotations of meanings (
fond, nice —
originally ‘foolish’, ‘simple’;
sly,
crafty, cunning
— originally ‘dexterous’); the change of an initial denotative
meaning into a modal or auxiliary one, resulting in desemantization (make — 1)
to produce smth., 2) to force or cause smb. to do smth). Finally, secondary
nomination embraces morphological ways of naming — e.g. hunter, kindness
(affixation), keyhole (composition) and phraseologization — black pudding
(кровяная колбаса).
depends on his attitude to the object and on his particular
communicative intention (e.g. man, chap, guy, fellow, person,
individual; Sergeant, blockhead, her only son, etc.).
Then, in parole there is another dichotomy, or opposition —
usual
and
occasional
nominations. Usual nomination implies a
culturally fixed association of a word with its denotation (e.g. a
fox — ‘a sly person’). Occasional nomination means an original
association of a word with some denotation for the purpose of
producing a certain stylistic effect. For example, in E.
Hemingway’s story ‘The Capital of the World’ the neutral noun
‘matador’ is used as a swear-word by a girl, addressing a matador
who failed at a bull-fight and whose love she rejects (‘My
matador
’); in this case the word is used ironically in the meaning
‘underdog, failure’.
The third dichotomy comes to the fore with regard to the
quality of an actualized meaning. Scholars specify two types of
nomination in parole —
with
and
without transfer of
denominations
. Transfer of denominations embraces the cases of
contextual actualization of a word in a transferred (indirect,
figurative) — metaphorical or metonymical — meaning. Absence
of transfer entails contextual actualization of a word in its direct
meaning.
As the final touch to this exposition it should be pointed out
that, unlike nomination in langue, which is almost exclusively
lexical, in parole we also specify
propositional nomination
,
which implies naming a situation, an event or a fact by means of
a sentence, and
discursive nomination
, which implies naming a
whole range of facts by means of a text.
Listed below you will find the most important stylistic
devices — images, tropes and figures of speech used in literature.
2.2. Imagery without transfer of denominations
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Image
is a) a specific sign of art and literature, whose form
(verbal description or visual object) is merged with its content
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образы-автологии
and points to it, but is apt to be associated with a more
generalized content; b) artistic generalization of human features
and qualities in a literary personage.
Images meaning (a) make up
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